Race, Crime, and the Micro‐Ecology of Deadly Force
Abstract
Research Summary Limitations in data and research on the use of firearms by police officers in the United States preclude sound understanding of the determinants of deadly force in police work. The current study addresses these limitations with detailed case attributes and a microspatial analysis of police shootings in St. Louis, MO, between 2003 and 2012. The results indicate that neither the racial composition of neighborhoods nor their level of economic disadvantage directly increase the frequency of police shootings, whereas levels of violent crime do—but only to a point. Police shootings are less frequent in areas with the highest levels of criminal violence than in those with midlevels of violence. We offer a provisional interpretation of these results and call for replications in other settings . Policy Implications Nationwide replications of the current research will require the establishment of a national database of police shootings. Informative assessments of a single agency's policies and practices require comparative information from other agencies. We recommend specific data elements to be included in such an information system that would shed further empirical light on the interconnections among race, crime, and police use of deadly force. The database also would contribute to the development of evidence‐based policies and procedures on deadly force—an urgent public priority in light of recent controversial police shootings across the United States .
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The Counted database is more complete than official federal databases because police departments underreport to the federal government.
“As Cesario et al. (2019) state, this database is more complete than official federal databases, as police departments underreport to the federal government (Feldman et al., 2017; Klinger et al., 2016; Nix et al., 2017; White, 2006).”
From Racial Disparities in Police Use of Deadly Force Against Unarmed Individuals Persist After Appropriately Benchmarking Shooting Data on Violent Crime Rates (2021) · cites this paper as Klinger et al., 2016
Prior studies indicate that only a portion of people shot by police die.
“Studies from the 1970s through present day indicate that those killed by police gunfire are but a portion of the total number of people shot or shot at.”
From Factors associated with police shooting mortality: A focus on race and a plea for more comprehensive data (2021) · cites this paper as [6]
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Tregle, B., Nix, J., & Pickett, J. T. (2020) · Justice Quarterly · doi:10.1080/07418825.2020.1821086 · Cited by 16 · see citing works
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- Authors
- Klinger, D., Rosenfeld, R., Isom, D., & Deckard, M.
- Affiliations
- University of Missouri–St. Louis (US)
- Venue
- Criminology & Public Policy
- Publisher
- Informa UK Limited
- Published
- 2015-11-17
- Volume
- 15
- Issue
- 1
- Pages
- 193-222
- ISSN
- 1538-6473 (ISSN-L)
- 1745-9133
- OpenAlex
- W2176256073
- Cited by
- 198
- References
- 45
- Citations by year
- 2026: 6 · 2025: 9 · 2024: 13 · 2023: 17 · 2022: 25 · 2021: 28 · 2020: 32 · 2019: 17 · 2018: 18 · 2017: 20 · 2016: 10 · 2015: 2 · 2014: 1
- FWCI
- 108.37
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- closed
- Locations
- Criminology & Public Policy (publishedVersion)
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Political Science and International Relations › Policing Practices and Perceptions
- Social Sciences › Health › Gun Ownership and Violence Research
- Social Sciences › Sociology and Political Science › Crime Patterns and Interventions
- Keywords
- police use of deadly force, police shootings, race, violent crime, neighborhood racial composition, microspatial analysis, St. Louis
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