A Bird's Eye View of Civilians Killed by Police in 2015: Further Evidence of Implicit Bias

Nix, Justin; Campbell, Bradley A.; Byers, Edward H.; Alpert, Geoffrey P.

doi:10.1111/1745-9133.12269

Cited by 341Policing Practices and PerceptionsCriminal Justice and Corrections AnalysisGun Ownership and Violence Research

A Bird's Eye View of Civilians Killed by Police in 2015: Further Evidence of Implicit Bias

Nix, Justin, Campbell, Bradley A., Byers, Edward H., Alpert, Geoffrey P.·2017·Criminology & Public Policy

DOI 10.1111/1745-9133.12269

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Abstract

Research Summary We analyzed 990 police fatal shootings using data compiled by The Washington Post in 2015. After first providing a basic descriptive analysis of these shootings, we then examined the data for evidence of implicit bias by using multivariate regression models that predict two indicators of threat perception failure: (1) whether the civilian was not attacking the officer(s) or other civilians just before being fatally shot and (2) whether the civilian was unarmed when fatally shot. The results indicated civilians from “other” minority groups were significantly more likely than Whites to have not been attacking the officer(s) or other civilians and that Black civilians were more than twice as likely as White civilians to have been unarmed. Policy Implications We implore the U.S. government to move forward with its publication of a national police use‐of‐force database, including as much information about the officers involved as possible. We further suggest police departments use training programs and community activities to minimize implicit bias among their officers.

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The Counted database is more complete than official federal databases because police departments underreport to the federal government.
“As Cesario et al. (2019) state, this database is more complete than official federal databases, as police departments underreport to the federal government (Feldman et al., 2017; Klinger et al., 2016; Nix et al., 2017; White, 2006).”
From Racial Disparities in Police Use of Deadly Force Against Unarmed Individuals Persist After Appropriately Benchmarking Shooting Data on Violent Crime Rates (2021) · cites this paper as Nix et al., 2017

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Overview of: “Race, Place, and Drug Enforcement: Reconsidering the Impact of Citizen Complaints and Crime Rates on Drug Arrests”
ENGEL, R. S., Smith, M. R., & Cullen, F. T. (2012) · Criminology & Public Policy · doi:10.1111/j.1745-9133.2012.00837.x · Cited by 10 · see citing works
The Impact of Supervision and Neighborhood Context on Police Use of Less-Lethal Force : A Multi-Level Analysis
Lim, H., Fridell, L. A., & Lee, H. (2014) · Cited by 10 · see citing works
Implicit Motivation to Control Prejudice and Exposure to Counterstereotypic Instances Reduce Spontaneous Discriminatory Behavior
박상희, & Glaser, J. (2011) · 한국심리학회지 사회및성격 · doi:10.21193/kjspp.2011.25.4.007 · Cited by 7 · see citing works

Flagged first, then by citations

2 of the 120 references couldn’t be matched to a known paper.

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Administrative Records Mask Racially Biased Policing
KNOX, D., LOWE, W., & MUMMOLO, J. (2020) · American Political Science Review · doi:10.1017/s0003055420000039 · Cited by 314 · see citing works
The Effects of Police Violence on Inner-City Students*
Ang, D. (2020) · The Quarterly Journal of Economics · doi:10.1093/qje/qjaa027 · Cited by 226 · see citing works
Race, Place, and Effective Policing
Braga, A. A., Brunson, R. K., & Drakulich, K. M. (2019) · Annual Review of Sociology · doi:10.1146/annurev-soc-073018-022541 · Cited by 186 · see citing works
De-policing and crime in the wake of Ferguson: Racialized changes in the quantity and quality of policing among Missouri police departments
Shjarback, J. A., Pyrooz, D. C., Wolfe, S. E., & Decker, S. H. (2017) · Journal of Criminal Justice · doi:10.1016/j.jcrimjus.2017.04.003 · Cited by 182 · see citing works
Does Predictive Policing Lead to Biased Arrests? Results From a Randomized Controlled Trial
Brantingham, P. J., Valasik, M. A., & Mohler, G. (2018) · Statistics and Public Policy · doi:10.1080/2330443x.2018.1438940 · Cited by 165 · see citing works
Third-person perceptions, hostile media effects, and policing: Developing a theoretical framework for assessing the Ferguson effect
Nix, J., & Pickett, J. T. (2017) · Journal of Criminal Justice · doi:10.1016/j.jcrimjus.2017.05.016 · Cited by 138 · see citing works
Self-citation
A Systematic Social Observation Study of Police De-Escalation Tactics
Todak, N., & James, L. (2018) · Police Quarterly · doi:10.1177/1098611118784007 · Cited by 136 · see citing works
A War on Cops? The Effects of Ferguson on the Number of U.S. Police Officers Murdered in the Line of Duty
Maguire, E. R., Nix, J., & Campbell, B. A. (2016) · Justice Quarterly · doi:10.1080/07418825.2016.1236205 · Cited by 133 · see citing works
Self-citation
Is There Evidence of Racial Disparity in Police Use of Deadly Force? Analyses of Officer-Involved Fatal Shootings in 2015–2016
Cesario, J., Johnson, D. J., & Terrill, W. (2018) · Social Psychological and Personality Science · doi:10.1177/1948550618775108 · Cited by 127 · see citing works
Cultural trauma as a fundamental cause of health disparities
Subica, A. M., & Link, B. G. (2022) · Social Science & Medicine · doi:10.1016/j.socscimed.2021.114574 · Cited by 123 · see citing works
“, racially-biased police violence) (Edwards et al., 2019; Nix et al., 2017; Williamson et al., 2018).”
A Social Scientific Approach toward Understanding Racial Disparities in Police Shooting: Data from the Department of Justice (1980–2000)
Scott, K., Ma, D. S., Sadler, M. S., & Correll, J. (2017) · Journal of Social Issues · doi:10.1111/josi.12243 · Cited by 113 · see citing works
Police Violence and Public Health
DeVylder, J., Anglin, D. M., Bowleg, L., Fedina, L., & Link, B. G. (2021) · Annual Review of Clinical Psychology · doi:10.1146/annurev-clinpsy-072720-020644 · Cited by 113 · see citing works
What the data say about police brutality and racial bias — and which reforms might work
Peeples, L. (2020) · Nature · doi:10.1038/d41586-020-01846-z · Cited by 110 · see citing works
Uncloaking a Lost Cause: Decolonizing ancestry estimation in the United States
DiGangi, E. A., & Bethard, J. D. (2021) · American Journal of Physical Anthropology · doi:10.1002/ajpa.24212 · Cited by 116 · see citing works
Making Black Lives Matter
Dunham, R. G., & Petersen, N. (2017) · Criminology & Public Policy · doi:10.1111/1745-9133.12284 · Cited by 102 · see citing works
Disparity does not mean bias: making sense of observed racial disparities in fatal officer-involved shootings with multiple benchmarks
Tregle, B., Nix, J., & Alpert, G. P. (2018) · Journal of Crime and Justice · doi:10.1080/0735648x.2018.1547269 · Cited by 94 · see citing works
Self-citation
The prevalence of fatal police shootings by U.S. police, 2015–2016: Patterns and answers from a new data set
Shane, J. M., Lawton, B. A., & Swenson, Z. (2017) · Journal of Criminal Justice · doi:10.1016/j.jcrimjus.2017.05.001 · Cited by 93 · see citing works
Variation in Rates of Fatal Police Shootings across US States: the Role of Firearm Availability
Hemenway, D., Azrael, D. R., Conner, A. S., & Miller, M. (2018) · Journal of Urban Health · doi:10.1007/s11524-018-0313-z · Cited by 92 · see citing works
Do White Law Enforcement Officers Target Minority Suspects?
Menifield, C. E., Shin, G., & Strother, L. (2018) · Public Administration Review · doi:10.1111/puar.12956 · Cited by 92 · see citing works
Police Encounters as Stressors: Associations with Depression and Anxiety across Race
Alang, S. M., McAlpine, D., & McClain, M. (2021) · Socius Sociological Research for a Dynamic World · doi:10.1177/2378023121998128 · Cited by 87 · see citing works
Race, Place, and Police-Caused Homicide in U.S. Municipalities
Holmes, M. D., Painter, M. A., & Smith, B. W. (2018) · Justice Quarterly · doi:10.1080/07418825.2018.1427782 · Cited by 87 · see citing works
Moving beyond “Best Practice”: Experiences in Police Reform and a Call for Evidence to Reduce Officer-Involved Shootings
ENGEL, R. S., McManus, H. D., & Isaza, G. T. (2020) · The Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science · doi:10.1177/0002716219889328 · Cited by 86 · see citing works
RETRACTED: Officer characteristics and racial disparities in fatal officer-involved shootings
Johnson, D. J., Tress, T., Burkel, N., Taylor, C., & Cesario, J. (2019) · Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences · doi:10.1073/pnas.1903856116 · Cited by 83 · see citing works
Retracted
Black Lives Matter’s effect on police lethal use of force
Campbell, T. (2023) · Journal of Urban Economics · doi:10.1016/j.jue.2023.103587 · Cited by 82 · see citing works
The Stability of Implicit Racial Bias in Police Officers
James, L. (2017) · Police Quarterly · doi:10.1177/1098611117732974 · Cited by 79 · see citing works
Thinking fast, not slow: How cognitive biases may contribute to racial disparities in the use of force in police-citizen encounters
Mears, D. P., Craig, M. O., Stewart, E. A., & Warren, P. Y. (2017) · Journal of Criminal Justice · doi:10.1016/j.jcrimjus.2017.09.001 · Cited by 75 · see citing works
How neighborhoods matter in fatal interactions between police and men of color.
Johnson, O., Vil, C. R. S., Gilbert, K. L., Goodman, M., & Johnson, C. A. (2019) · Social Science & Medicine (1967) · doi:10.1016/j.socscimed.2018.11.024 · Cited by 64 · see citing works
Demeanor, Race, and Police Perceptions of Procedural Justice: Evidence from Two Randomized Experiments
Nix, J., Pickett, J. T., Wolfe, S. E., & Campbell, B. A. (2017) · Justice Quarterly · doi:10.1080/07418825.2017.1334808 · Cited by 72 · see citing works
Self-citation
Implicit racism, colour blindness, and narrow definitions of discrimination: Why some White people prefer ‘All Lives Matter’ to ‘Black Lives Matter’
West, K., Greenland, K., & van Laar, C. (2021) · British Journal of Social Psychology · doi:10.1111/bjso.12458 · Cited by 75 · see citing works
Is the Number of Citizens Fatally Shot by Police Increasing in the Post-Ferguson Era?
Campbell, B. A., Nix, J., & Maguire, E. R. (2017) · Crime & Delinquency · doi:10.1177/0011128716686343 · Cited by 70 · see citing works
Self-citation
Validating the National Violent Death Reporting System as a Source of Data on Fatal Shootings of Civilians by Law Enforcement Officers
Conner, A. S., Azrael, D. R., Lyons, V. H., Barber, C. W., & Miller, M. (2019) · American Journal of Public Health · doi:10.2105/ajph.2018.304904 · Cited by 66 · see citing works
Racial Disparities in Police Use of Deadly Force Against Unarmed Individuals Persist After Appropriately Benchmarking Shooting Data on Violent Crime Rates
Ross, C. T., Winterhalder, B., & McElreath, R. (2021) · Social Psychological and Personality Science · doi:10.1177/1948550620916071 · Cited by 61 · see citing works
“As Cesario et al. (2019) state, this database is more complete than official federal databases, as police departments underreport to the federal government (Feldman et al., 2017; Klinger et al., 2016; Nix et al., 2017; White, 2006).”
Background
Exploring Bias in Police Shooting Decisions With Real Shoot/Don’t Shoot Cases
Worrall, J. L., Bishopp, S. A., Zinser, S. C., Wheeler, A. P., & Phillips, S. W. (2018) · Crime & Delinquency · doi:10.1177/0011128718756038 · Cited by 63 · see citing works
A Typology of Civilians Shot and Killed by US Police: a Latent Class Analysis of Firearm Legal Intervention Homicide in the 2014–2015 National Violent Death Reporting System
Wertz, J., Azrael, D. R., Berrigan, J., Barber, C. W., Nelson, E. W., Hemenway, D., Salhi, C., & Miller, M. (2020) · Journal of Urban Health · doi:10.1007/s11524-020-00430-0 · Cited by 57 · see citing works
Can police shootings be reduced by requiring officers to document when they point firearms at citizens?
Shjarback, J. A., White, M. D., & Bishopp, S. A. (2021) · Injury Prevention · doi:10.1136/injuryprev-2020-043932 · Cited by 57 · see citing works
What can experimental studies of bias tell us about real-world group disparities?
Cesario, J. (2021) · Behavioral and Brain Sciences · doi:10.1017/s0140525x21000017 · Cited by 58 · see citing works
Factors associated with police shooting mortality: A focus on race and a plea for more comprehensive data
Nix, J., & Shjarback, J. A. (2021) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0259024 · Cited by 57 · see citing works
Self-citation
Race, Structural Predictors, and Police Shootings: Are There Differences Across Official and “Unofficial” Accounts of Lethal Force?
Gray, A. C., & Parker, K. F. (2018) · Crime & Delinquency · doi:10.1177/0011128718788044 · Cited by 55 · see citing works
Does Protest Against Police Violence Matter? Evidence from U.S. Cities, 1990 through 2019
Olzak, S. (2021) · American Sociological Review · doi:10.1177/00031224211056966 · Cited by 53 · see citing works
What Factors Influence an Officer’s Decision to Shoot? The Promise and Limitations of Using Public Data
Wheeler, A. P., Phillips, S. W., WORRALL, J. L., & Bishopp, S. A. (2017) · Justice Research and Policy · doi:10.1177/1525107118759900 · Cited by 52 · see citing works
Do Officer-Involved Shootings Reduce Citizen Contact with Government?
Cohen, E., Gunderson, A., Schiff, K. J., McLachlan, P., Clark, T. S., Glynn, A., & Owens, M. L. (2019) · The Journal of Politics · doi:10.1086/703539 · Cited by 52 · see citing works
Advancing police use of force research and practice: urgent issues and prospects
Bennell, C., Alpert, G. P., Andersen, J. P., Arpaia, J., Huhta, J., Kahn, K. B., Khanizadeh, A., McCarthy, M., McLean, K. D., Mitchell, R. J., et al. (2021) · Legal and Criminological Psychology · doi:10.1111/lcrp.12191 · Cited by 52 · see citing works
Self-citation
Reconciling Results on Racial Differences in Police Shootings
Fryer, R. G. (2018) · AEA Papers and Proceedings · doi:10.1257/pandp.20181004 · Cited by 51 · see citing works
Critical Assessment of an Analysis of a Journalistic Compendium of Citizens Killed by Police Gunfire
KLINGER, D. A., & Slocum, L. A. (2017) · Criminology & Public Policy · doi:10.1111/1745-9133.12283 · Cited by 50 · see citing works
Police-Generated Killings: The Gap between Ethics and Law
Jones, B. (2021) · Political Research Quarterly · doi:10.1177/10659129211009596 · Cited by 49 · see citing works
Polizei und Gewalt
Derin, B., & Singelnstein, T. (2020) · Edition Forschung und Entwicklung in der Strafrechtspflege · doi:10.1007/978-3-658-30727-1_6 · Cited by 47 · see citing works
Whose lives mattered? How White and Black Americans felt about Black Lives Matter in 2016
Drakulich, K., Wozniak, K. H., Hagan, J. L., & Johnson, D. (2021) · Law & Society Review · doi:10.1111/lasr.12552 · Cited by 47 · see citing works
Social Accountability and Institutional Change: The Case of Citizen Oversight of Police
Ali, M. U., & Pirog, M. A. (2019) · Public Administration Review · doi:10.1111/puar.13055 · Cited by 47 · see citing works
Implicit revanchism: Gang injunctions and the security politics of white liberalism
Bloch, S., & Meyer, D. (2019) · Environment and Planning D Society and Space · doi:10.1177/0263775819832315 · Cited by 46 · see citing works
Progress toward national estimates of police use of force
Garner, J. H., Hickman, M. J., Malega, R., & Maxwell, C. D. (2018) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0192932 · Cited by 45 · see citing works
Police Officers’ Perceptions of Body-Worn Cameras in Buffalo and Rochester
Gramagila, J. A., & Phillips, S. W. (2017) · American Journal of Criminal Justice · doi:10.1007/s12103-017-9403-9 · Cited by 44 · see citing works
A Black Teen, a White Cop, and a City in Turmoil: Analyzing Newspaper Reports on Ferguson, Missouri and the Death of Michael Brown
Potterf, J. E., & Pohl, J. R. (2018) · Journal of Contemporary Criminal Justice · doi:10.1177/1043986218787732 · Cited by 43 · see citing works
National Burden of Injury and Deaths From Shootings by Police in the United States, 2015‒2020
Ward, J. A., Cepeda, J., Jackson, D. B., Johnson, O., Webster, D. W., & Crifasi, C. K. (2024) · American Journal of Public Health · doi:10.2105/ajph.2023.307560 · Cited by 43 · see citing works
A Ferguson Effect, the Drug Epidemic, Both, or Neither? Explaining the 2015 and 2016 U.S. Homicide Rises by Race and Ethnicity
Gaston, S., Cunningham, J. P., & Gillezeau, R. (2019) · Homicide Studies · doi:10.1177/1088767919849642 · Cited by 41 · see citing works
What the data say about police shootings
Peeples, L. (2019) · Nature · doi:10.1038/d41586-019-02601-9 · Cited by 43 · see citing works
Explaining the Disparity in Results Across Studies Assessing Racial Disparity in Police Use of Force: A Research Note
Fridell, L. A. (2016) · American Journal of Criminal Justice · doi:10.1007/s12103-016-9378-y · Cited by 41 · see citing works
POLICING IN AMERICAN HISTORY
Brown, R. A. (2019) · Du Bois Review Social Science Research on Race · doi:10.1017/s1742058x19000171 · Cited by 38 · see citing works
Toward a General Causal Framework for the Study of Racial Bias in Policing
Knox, D., & Mummolo, J. (2020) · Journal of Political Institutions and Political Economy · doi:10.1561/113.00000018 · Cited by 38 · see citing works
Occurrence of fatal police violence during pregnancy and hazard of preterm birth in California
Goin, D. E., Gómez, A. M., Farkas, K., Duarte, C., Karasek, D. A., Chambers, B. D., Jackson, A. V., & Ahern, J. (2021) · Paediatric and Perinatal Epidemiology · doi:10.1111/ppe.12753 · Cited by 38 · see citing works
Perceptions of Violent Encounters between Police and Young Black Men across Stakeholder Groups
Calvert, C., Brady, S. S., & Jones‐Webb, R. (2020) · Journal of Urban Health · doi:10.1007/s11524-019-00417-6 · Cited by 37 · see citing works
Considering violence against police by citizen race/ethnicity to contextualize representation in officer-involved shootings
Shjarback, J. A., & Nix, J. (2019) · Journal of Criminal Justice · doi:10.1016/j.jcrimjus.2019.101653 · Cited by 38 · see citing works
Self-citation
The effect of suspect race on police officers’ decisions to draw their weapons
WORRALL, J. L., Bishopp, S. A., & Terrill, W. (2020) · Justice Quarterly · doi:10.1080/07418825.2020.1760331 · Cited by 35 · see citing works
Race, weapons, and the perception of threat
Payne, B. K., & Correll, J. (2020) · Advances in experimental social psychology · doi:10.1016/bs.aesp.2020.04.001 · Cited by 34 · see citing works
Operationalizing a Structural Vulnerability Profile for forensic anthropology: Skeletal and dental biomarkers of embodied inequity
Winburn, A. P., Wolf, K. M., & Marten, M. G. (2022) · Forensic Science International Synergy · doi:10.1016/j.fsisyn.2022.100289 · Cited by 34 · see citing works
Black and unarmed: statistical interaction between age, perceived mental illness, and geographic region among males fatally shot by police using case-only design
Thomas, M. D., Jewell, N. P., & Allen, A. M. (2020) · Annals of Epidemiology · doi:10.1016/j.annepidem.2020.08.014 · Cited by 33 · see citing works
Antiblackness as a Logic for Anti‐Immigrant Resentment: Evidence From California
Mora, G. C., & Paschel, T. S. (2020) · Sociological Forum · doi:10.1111/socf.12601 · Cited by 32 · see citing works
Maintaining neutrality: A sentiment analysis of police agency Facebook pages before and after a fatal officer-involved shooting of a citizen
Hand, L. C., & Ching, B. D. (2019) · Government Information Quarterly · doi:10.1016/j.giq.2019.101420 · Cited by 32 · see citing works
Gun victimization in the line of duty
Sierra‐Arévalo, M., & Nix, J. (2020) · Criminology & Public Policy · doi:10.1111/1745-9133.12507 · Cited by 32 · see citing works
Self-citation
Evidence of Racial Bias Using Immersive Virtual Reality: Analysis of Head and Hand Motions During Shooting Decisions
Peck, T. C., Good, J. J., & Seitz, K. R. (2021) · IEEE Transactions on Visualization and Computer Graphics · doi:10.1109/tvcg.2021.3067767 · Cited by 32 · see citing works
Race, Crime, and Criminal Justice
Fernandes, A. D., & Crutchfield, R. D. (2018) · Criminology & Public Policy · doi:10.1111/1745-9133.12361 · Cited by 32 · see citing works
Race and police killings: examining the links between racial threat and police shootings of Black Americans
Gray, A. C., & Parker, K. F. (2020) · Journal of Ethnicity in Criminal Justice · doi:10.1080/15377938.2020.1774952 · Cited by 31 · see citing works
Measuring Racial Disparities in Police Use of Force: Methods Matter
Geller, A., Goff, P. A., Lloyd, T., Haviland, A. M., Obermark, D., & Glaser, J. (2020) · Journal of quantitative criminology · doi:10.1007/s10940-020-09471-9
Addressing the inappropriate use of force by police in the United States and beyond: A behavioral and social science perspective
Boxer, P., Brunson, R. K., Gaylord‐Harden, N. K., Kahn, K. B., Patton, D. U., Richardson, J. B., Rivera, L. M., Lee, J. R. S., Staller, M. S., Krahé, B., et al. (2021) · Aggressive Behavior · doi:10.1002/ab.21970 · Cited by 31 · see citing works
“Police shootings, now that seems to be the main issue” – Black pregnant women’s anticipation of police brutality towards their children
Mehra, R., Alspaugh, A., Franck, L. S., McLemore, M. R., Kershaw, T., Ickovics, J. R., Keene, D. E., & Sewell, A. A. (2022) · BMC Public Health · doi:10.1186/s12889-022-12557-7 · Cited by 31 · see citing works
“We (still) charge genocide”: A systematic review and synthesis of the direct and indirect health consequences of police violence in the United States
Haile, R., Rowell‐Cunsolo, T. L., Hyacinthe, M.-F., & Alang, S. (2023) · Social Science & Medicine · doi:10.1016/j.socscimed.2023.115784 · Cited by 31 · see citing works
Will Black Lives Matter to the Police? African Americans’ Concerns about Trump’s Presidency
McManus, H. D., Cullen, F. T., Jonson, C. L., Burton, A. L., & Burton, V. S. (2019) · Victims & Offenders · doi:10.1080/15564886.2019.1671288 · Cited by 30 · see citing works
A Decade of Police Use of Deadly Force Research (2011–2020)
Mora, D. O., Terrill, W., & Foster, J. (2022) · Homicide Studies · doi:10.1177/10887679221123591 · Cited by 30 · see citing works
Role Conflict and the Psychological Impacts of the Post-Ferguson Period on Law Enforcement Motivation, Cynicism, and Apprehensiveness
Torres, J. A., Reling, T. T., & E.Hawdon, J. (2018) · Journal of Police and Criminal Psychology · doi:10.1007/s11896-018-9284-y · Cited by 29 · see citing works
Hitting (or missing) the mark
Donner, C. M., & Popovich, N. (2018) · Policing An International Journal · doi:10.1108/pijpsm-05-2018-0060 · Cited by 29 · see citing works
Comparing Fatal Encounters, Mapping Police Violence, and Washington Post Fatal Police Shooting Data from 2015–2019: A Research Note
Comer, B. P., & Ingram, J. R. (2022) · Criminal Justice Review · doi:10.1177/07340168211071014 · Cited by 28 · see citing works
Fatal police shootings of civilians, by rurality
Hemenway, D., Berrigan, J., Azrael, D. R., Barber, C. W., & Miller, M. (2020) · Preventive Medicine · doi:10.1016/j.ypmed.2020.106046 · Cited by 27 · see citing works
The distribution of police use of force across patrol and specialty units: a case study in BWC impact
Gaub, J., Todak, N., & White, M. D. (2020) · Journal of Experimental Criminology · doi:10.1007/s11292-020-09429-8
Police Uses of Force in the USA: a Wealth of Theories and a Lack of Evidence
McLean, K. D., Stoughton, S. W., & Alpert, G. P. (2022) · Cambridge Journal of Evidence-Based Policing · doi:10.1007/s41887-022-00078-7 · Cited by 27 · see citing works
Self-citation
“We’re Still Dying Quicker Than We Can Effect Change”: #BlackLivesMatter and the Limits of 21st-Century Policing Reform
Phelps, M. S., Robertson, C. E., & Powell, A. J. (2021) · American Journal of Sociology · doi:10.1086/717671 · Cited by 26 · see citing works
‘Rhetoric without reality’ or effective policing strategy? An analysis of the relationship between community policing and police fatal force
Koslicki, W. M., MS, D. J. L., Willits, D. W., & Brooks, R. (2020) · Journal of Criminal Justice · doi:10.1016/j.jcrimjus.2020.101730 · Cited by 27 · see citing works
Racial disparities in police use-of-force: a state-of-the-art review
Hollis, M. E., & Jennings, W. G. (2018) · Policing An International Journal · doi:10.1108/pijpsm-09-2017-0112 · Cited by 25 · see citing works
Inequalities and crime
Heimer, K. (2019) · Criminology · doi:10.1111/1745-9125.12220 · Cited by 25 · see citing works
Are We Asking the Right Questions?: Designing for Community Stakeholders’ Interactions with AI in Policing
Haque, M. R., Saxena, D., Weathington, K., Chudzik, J., & Guha, S. (2024) · CHI Conference on Human Factors in Computing Systems · doi:10.1145/3613904.3642738 · Cited by 25 · see citing works
Understanding Racial Disparities in Police Use of Lethal Force: Lessons from Fatal Police‐on‐Police Shootings
Charbonneau, A., Spencer, K., & Glaser, J. (2017) · Journal of Social Issues · doi:10.1111/josi.12246 · Cited by 24 · see citing works
Beyond false positives
Taylor, P. L. (2019) · Criminology & Public Policy · doi:10.1111/1745-9133.12460 · Cited by 24 · see citing works
Integrating the Literature on Police Use of Deadly Force and Police Lethal Victimization: How Does Place Impact Fatal Police–Citizen Encounters?
Fridel, E. E., Sheppard, K. G., & Zimmerman, G. M. (2019) · Journal of Quantitative Criminology · doi:10.1007/s10940-019-09438-5 · Cited by 24 · see citing works
Canicide by Cop: A geographical analysis of canine killings by police in Los Angeles
Bloch, S., & Martínez, D. E. (2020) · Geoforum · doi:10.1016/j.geoforum.2020.02.009 · Cited by 23 · see citing works
Gender differences in serious police misconduct: A machine-learning analysis of the New York Police Department (NYPD)
Cubitt, T. I. C., Gaub, J. E., & Holtfreter, K. (2022) · Journal of Criminal Justice · doi:10.1016/j.jcrimjus.2022.101976 · Cited by 23 · see citing works
Impossibility of a “Reverse Racism” Effect
Roussell, A., Henne, K., Glover, K. S., & Willits, D. W. (2017) · Criminology & Public Policy · doi:10.1111/1745-9133.12289 · Cited by 22 · see citing works
Fatal outcomes of militarization: Re-examining the relationship between the 1033 Program and police deadly force
Koslicki, W. M., Willits, D. W., & Brooks, R. (2021) · Journal of Criminal Justice · doi:10.1016/j.jcrimjus.2021.101781 · Cited by 22 · see citing works
Examining Guardian and Warrior Orientations Across Racial and Ethnic Lines
Clifton, S., Torres, J. A., & E.Hawdon, J. (2021) · Journal of Police and Criminal Psychology · doi:10.1007/s11896-020-09427-6 · Cited by 22 · see citing works
Who Believes that the Police Use Excessive Force? Centering Racism in Research on Perceptions of the Police
Drakulich, K., Robles, J., Rodriguez‐Whitney, E., & Pereira, C. (2022) · Journal of Research in Crime and Delinquency · doi:10.1177/00224278221120781 · Cited by 22 · see citing works
Mindfulness Training, Implicit Bias, and Force Response Decision-Making
Hunsinger, M., Christopher, M., & Schmidt, A. M. (2019) · Mindfulness · doi:10.1007/s12671-019-01213-8 · Cited by 22 · see citing works
Race, police, and the pandemic: considering the role of race in public health policing
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“Consider, for example, that White people are more likely than people of color to be carrying weapons or attacking officers in the moments preceding fatal shootings (Nix et al., 2017; Thomas et al., 2021).”
Background

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White civilians’ implicit danger evaluation of police officers underlies explicit perception of police
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Price, J. H., & Payton, E. (2017) · Journal of African American Studies · doi:10.1007/s12111-017-9383-3 · Cited by 20 · see citing works
Is There Evidence of Racial Disparity in Police Use of Deadly Force? Analyses of Officer-Involved Fatal Shootings in 2015–2016
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Authors: Nix, J., Campbell, B. A., Byers, E. H., & Alpert, G. P.
Affiliations: University of Louisville (US)
Griffith University (AU)
Corresponding author: Nix, Justin
ORCID: Nix, Justin
Campbell, Bradley A.
Alpert, Geoffrey P.
Venue: Criminology & Public Policy
Publisher: Informa UK Limited
Published: 2017-02
Volume: 16
Issue: 1
Pages: 309-340
ISSN: 1538-6473 (ISSN-L)
1745-9133
DOI: 10.1111/1745-9133.12269
OpenAlex: W2587586470
Cited by: 336
References: 120
Citations by year: 2026: 12 · 2025: 18 · 2024: 27 · 2023: 25 · 2022: 57 · 2021: 57 · 2020: 52 · 2019: 33 · 2018: 30 · 2017: 22 · 2016: 2
FWCI: 187.50
Type: journal article
Language: en
Open access: closed
Licence: onlinelibrary.wiley.com/termsAndConditions#vor (vor, 7 d)
Locations: Criminology & Public Policy (publishedVersion)
Griffith Research Online (submittedVersion)
Topics: Social Sciences › Political Science and International Relations › Policing Practices and Perceptions
Social Sciences › Sociology and Political Science › Criminal Justice and Corrections Analysis
Social Sciences › Health › Gun Ownership and Violence Research
Keywords: police use of force, implicit bias, threat perception, racial disparities, police training, civilian deaths

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A Bird's Eye View of Civilians Killed by Police in 2015: Further Evidence of Implicit Bias

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