Risk of being killed by police use of force in the United States by age, race–ethnicity, and sex
Open accessPublished version of a preprint
Abstract
We use data on police-involved deaths to estimate how the risk of being killed by police use of force in the United States varies across social groups. We estimate the lifetime and age-specific risks of being killed by police by race and sex. We also provide estimates of the proportion of all deaths accounted for by police use of force. We find that African American men and women, American Indian/Alaska Native men and women, and Latino men face higher lifetime risk of being killed by police than do their white peers. We find that Latina women and Asian/Pacific Islander men and women face lower risk of being killed by police than do their white peers. Risk is highest for black men, who (at current levels of risk) face about a 1 in 1,000 chance of being killed by police over the life course. The average lifetime odds of being killed by police are about 1 in 2,000 for men and about 1 in 33,000 for women. Risk peaks between the ages of 20 y and 35 y for all groups. For young men of color, police use of force is among the leading causes of death.
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Claims the paper makes
5 of 25 cited sources checked · 1 supported · 0 flagged · accuracy not yet measured
- Premisecitation
Unofficial media-based methods provide more comprehensive information on police violence than the limited official data currently available.
“Unofficial media-based methods provide more comprehensive information on police violence than do the limited official data currently available (4,33,34).”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim2 of 3 sources checked- cites [4] 4. N. Krieger, J. T. Chen, P. D. Waterman, M. V. Kiang, J. Feldman, Police killings and police deaths are public health data and can be counted. PLoS Med. 12, e1001915 (2015). source
- cites [33] 33. J. M. Feldman, S. Gruskin, B. A. Coull, N. Krieger, Quantifying underreporting of law- enforcement-related deaths in United States vital statistics and news-media-based data sources: A capture -recapture analysis. PLoS Med. 14, e1002399 (2017). source
The Conclusions and the section ‘Estimates of the number of US law-enforcement-related deaths in 2015’ show that the media-based source The Counted recorded substantially more law-enforcement-related deaths than the official NVSS. The paper studies deaths, however, not police violence generally or nonfatal incidents, so it supports the comparison only for fatal cases. Page numbers were not supplied in our copy. (LLM, conf=0.84)
Experimental — accuracy not yet measured - cites [34] 34. J. M. Feldman, S. Gruskin, B. A. Coull, N. Krieger, Killed by police: Validity of media- based data and misclassification of death certificates in Massachusetts, 2004-2016. source
- Premisecitation§ Risk of being killed by police use of force in the United States by age, race-ethnicity, and sex
People of color, especially African Americans, are at greater risk for experiencing criminal justice contact and police-involved harm than whites.
“While a substantial body of evidence shows that people of color, especially African Americans, are at greater risk for experiencing criminal justice contact and police-involved harm than are whites (14-19)”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim2 of 6 sources checked- cites [14] 14. R. Kramer, B. Remster, Stop, frisk, and assault? Racial disparities in police use of force during investigatory stops. Law Soc. Rev. 52, 960-993 (2018). source
- cites [15] 15. R. Brame, M. G. Turner, R. Paternoster, S. D. Bushway, Cumulative prevalence of arrest from ages 8 to 23 in a national sample. Pediatrics 129, 21-27 (2012). source
- cites [16] 16. B. Pettit, B. Western, Mass imprisonment and the life course: Race and class inequality in U.S. incarceration. Am. Sociol. Rev. 69, 151-169 (2004). source
- cites [17] 17. F. Edwards, M. H. Esposito, H. Lee, Risk of police-involved death by race/ethnicity and place, United States, 2012 -2018. Am. J. Public Health 108, 1241-1248 (2018). source
The Abstract says people of color face greater police-involved harm than White people and reports higher police-homicide risk for Black and Latino men than for White men. The paper does not establish the separate claim that people of color face greater risk of criminal justice contact generally. (LLM, conf=0.88)
Experimental — accuracy not yet measured - cites [18] 18. A. C. Mooney, S. McConville, A. J. Rappaport, R. Y. Hsia, Association of legal inter- vention injuries with race and ethnicity among patients treated in emergency departments in California. JAMA Network Open 1, e182150-e182150 (2018). source
The Results report substantially more legal-intervention injuries per capita among Black than white individuals, and the Discussion links much of that difference to higher arrest rates among Black individuals. The paper does not establish greater criminal-justice contact and police-involved harm for people of color generally: it reports substantially lower injury rates for Asian/Pacific Islander individuals and lower injuries per arrest for Hispanic individuals than for white individuals. Its injury findings concern California emergency-department patients, not all forms of police-involved harm. (LLM, conf=0.87)
Experimental — accuracy not yet measured - cites [19] 19. D. Knox, W. Lowe, J. Mummolo, The bias is built in: How administrative records mask racially biased policing. https://dx.doi.org/10.2139/ssrn.3336338 (April 26, 2019). source
- Findingown data
Black women are about 1.4 times more likely to be killed by police than white women.
“Black women are about 1.4 times more likely to be killed by police than are white women.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim- The authors state this as an assumption: Underlying age-specific mortality risks remain constant at observed 2013–2018 levels throughout the life course.
- Findingown data§ Risk of being killed by police use of force in the United States by age, race-ethnicity, and sex
For young men of color, police use of force is among the leading causes of death.
“For young men of color, police use of force is among the leading causes of death.”
- Also stated in: § Results · plain
“This ranks police use of force as one of the leading causes of death for young men.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Also stated in: § Results · plain
- Findingown data§ Risk of being killed by police use of force in the United States by age, race-ethnicity, and sex
The risk of being killed by police peaks between ages 20 and 35 for all groups.
“Risk peaks between the ages of 20 y and 35 y for all groups.”
- Also stated in: § Results · plain
“Risk for all groups peaks between the ages of 20 y and 35 y and declines with age.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Also stated in: § Results · plain
- Findingown data
Black men are about 2.5 times more likely to be killed by police over the life course than white men.
“Black men are about 2.5 times more likely to be killed by police over the life course than are white men.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim- The authors state this as an assumption: Underlying age-specific mortality risks remain constant at observed 2013–2018 levels throughout the life course.
- Findingown data
Women's risk of being killed by police is about an order of magnitude lower than men's risk at all ages.
“Women's risk of being killed by police use of force is about an order of magnitude lower than men's risk at all ages”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Findingown data
Between ages 25 and 29, black men are killed by police at a rate between 2.8 and 4.1 per 100,000.
“Between the ages of 25 y and 29 y, black men are killed by police at a rate between 2.8 and 4.1 per 100,000”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim - Findingown data
Between ages 25 and 29, Asian/Pacific Islander men are killed by police at a rate between 0.3 and 0.6 per 100,000.
“Asian/Pacific Islander men are killed by police at a rate between 0.3 and 0.6 per 100,000”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim - Findingown data
For women ages 20-24, police use of force is responsible for 0.05% of all deaths of Asian/Pacific Islander women.
“0.05% of all deaths of Asian/Pacific Islander women”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim - Findingown data
Between ages 25 and 29, police violence trails accidents (76.6), suicide (26.7), other homicides (22.0), heart disease (7.0), and cancer (6.3) as a leading cause of death.
“Between these ages, police violence trails accidents (which include drug overdoses, motor vehicle traffic deaths, and other accidental fatalities) at 76.6 deaths per 100,000, suicide (26.7 deaths per 100,000), other homicides (22.0 deaths per 100,000), heart disease (7.0 deaths per 100,000), and cancer (6.3 deaths per 100,000) as a leading cause of death.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim - Findingown data
Police use of force is not among the 15 leading causes of death for young women.
“Police use of force is not among the 15 leading causes of death for young women.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim - Findingown data
Rates of death have increased by as much as 50% since 2008.
“However, in SI Appendix, Fig. S3 we show that rates of death have increased by as much as 50% since 2008.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim - Findingown data
Between ages 25 and 29, Latino men are killed by police at a rate between 1.4 and 2.2 per 100,000.
“Latino men at a rate between 1.4 and 2.2 per 100,000”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim - Findingown data
At ages 20-24, police are responsible for 1.2% of American Indian/Alaska Native male deaths.
“police are responsible for 1.2% of American Indian/Alaska Native male deaths”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim - Findingown data
At ages 20-24, police are responsible for 0.5% of white male deaths.
“0.5% of white male deaths.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim - Findingown data
American Indian/Alaska Native women are between 1.1 and 2.1 times more likely to be killed by police than white women.
“American Indian women are between 1.1 and 2.1 times more likely to be killed by police than are white women.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim- The authors state this as an assumption: Underlying age-specific mortality risks remain constant at observed 2013–2018 levels throughout the life course.
- Findingown data
For women ages 20-24, police use of force is responsible for 0.2% of all deaths of American Indian/Alaska Native women.
“0.2% of all deaths of American Indian/Alaska Native women”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim - Findingown data
Asian/Pacific Islander women and girls have the lowest lifetime risk, about 0.6 [0.2,1.5] per 100,000.
“Asian/Pacific Islander women and girls are at the lowest risk of being killed by police for all groups, with a lifetime risk of about 0.6 [0.2, 1.5] per 100,000.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim- The authors state this as an assumption: Underlying age-specific mortality risks remain constant at observed 2013–2018 levels throughout the life course.
- Findingown data
Women's lifetime risk of being killed by police is about 20 times lower than men's risk.
“Women's lifetime risk of being killed by police is about 20 times lower than men's risk.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim- The authors state this as an assumption: Underlying age-specific mortality risks remain constant at observed 2013–2018 levels throughout the life course.
- Findingcitation
Latino men and boys have an estimated lifetime risk of about 53 per 100,000 [41,67].
“Latino men and boys have an estimated risk of being killed by police of about 53 per 100,000 [41,67].”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim- The authors state this as an assumption: Underlying age-specific mortality risks remain constant at observed 2013–2018 levels throughout the life course.
- Findingown data
The share of white deaths has been increasing in recent years.
“Also note that while black people remain disproportionately more likely than white people to be killed by police, the share of white deaths has been increasing in recent years (SI Appendix, Fig. S5).”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim - Findingown data
At ages 20-24, police are responsible for 0.5% of Asian/Pacific Islander male deaths.
“0.5% of Asian/Pacific Islander male deaths”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim - Findingown data
The overall mortality risk for women ages 25-29 is 0.08 per 100,000.
“an overall mortality risk of 0.08 per 100,000 for women in this age group.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim - Findingown data
Mortality rate estimates for all groups increase substantially when all recorded cases are included in the analysis.
“Mortality rate estimates for all groups increase substantially when all recorded cases are included in the analysis.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim - Findingown data
American Indian/Alaska Native women and girls have a lifetime risk of about 4.2 per 100,000 [1.8,8.5].
“American Indian and Alaska Native women and girls are killed by police over the life course at a rate of about 4.2 per 100,000 [1.8, 8.5].”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim- The authors state this as an assumption: Underlying age-specific mortality risks remain constant at observed 2013–2018 levels throughout the life course.
- Findingown data
Latino men are between 1.3 and 1.4 times more likely to be killed by police than white men.
“Latino men are between 1.3 and 1.4 times more likely to be killed by police than are white men”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim- The authors state this as an assumption: Underlying age-specific mortality risks remain constant at observed 2013–2018 levels throughout the life course.
- Findingown data
The overall mortality rate for men ages 25-29 is about 1.8 per 100,000.
“We estimate an overall mortality rate of about 1.8 per 100,000 for men between the ages of 25 y and 29 y.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Findingown data
Between ages 25 and 29, white men are killed by police at a rate between 0.9 and 1.4 per 100,000.
“white men at a rate between 0.9 and 1.4 per 100,000.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim - Findingown data
Inequalities in risk persist throughout the life course.
“Inequalities in risk persist throughout the life course.”
- Also stated in: § Discussion · plain
“Inequalities in risk are pronounced throughout the life course.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim- The authors state this as an assumption: Underlying age-specific mortality risks remain constant at observed 2013–2018 levels throughout the life course.
- Also stated in: § Discussion · plain
- Findingown data
American Indian/Alaska Native men and boys have a lifetime risk between 36 and 81 per 100,000.
“We predict that between 36 and 81 American Indian/Alaska Native men and boys per 100,000 will be killed by police over the life course.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim- The authors state this as an assumption: Underlying age-specific mortality risks remain constant at observed 2013–2018 levels throughout the life course.
- Findingown data
Latina and white women and girls have similar lifetime mortality risks, about 2 per 100,000.
“Latina and white women and girls have similar lifetime mortality risks, at about 2 per 100,000.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim- The authors state this as an assumption: Underlying age-specific mortality risks remain constant at observed 2013–2018 levels throughout the life course.
- Findingown data
Asian/Pacific Islander men and boys have a lifetime risk between 9 and 23 per 100,000.
“Asian/Pacific Islander men and boys face a lifetime risk of between 9 and 23 per 100,000”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim- The authors state this as an assumption: Underlying age-specific mortality risks remain constant at observed 2013–2018 levels throughout the life course.
- Findingnone given
Latina women are between 12% and 23% less likely to be killed by police than white women.
“Latina women are between 12% and 23% less likely to be killed by police than are white women.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim- The authors state this as an assumption: Underlying age-specific mortality risks remain constant at observed 2013–2018 levels throughout the life course.
- Findingown data
White men and boys have a lifetime risk of about 39 [31,48] per 100,000.
“white men and boys face a lifetime risk of about 39 [31,48] per 100,000.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim- The authors state this as an assumption: Underlying age-specific mortality risks remain constant at observed 2013–2018 levels throughout the life course.
- Findingown data
For women ages 20-24, police use of force is responsible for 0.2% of all deaths of black women.
“police use of force is responsible for 0.2% of all deaths of black women”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim - Findingown data
At ages 20-24, police are responsible for 1.2% of Latino male deaths.
“1.2% of Latino male deaths”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim - Findingown data
Between ages 25 and 29, American Indian/Alaska Native men are killed by police at a rate between 1.5 and 2.8 per 100,000.
“American Indian and Alaska Native men are killed at a rate between 1.5 and 2.8 per 100,000”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim - Findingown data
Black women and girls have an expected lifetime risk between 2.4 and 5.4 per 100,000.
“we expect between 2.4 and 5.4 black women and girls to be killed by police over the life course per 100,000 at current rates.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim- The authors state this as an assumption: Underlying age-specific mortality risks remain constant at observed 2013–2018 levels throughout the life course.
- Findingown data
Police use of force is responsible for 1.6% of all deaths involving black men ages 20-24.
“Police use of force is responsible for 1.6% of all deaths involving black men between the ages of 20 y and 24 y.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Findingown data
American Indian/Alaska Native men are between 1.2 and 1.7 times more likely to be killed by police than white men.
“American Indian men are between 1.2 and 1.7 times more likely to be killed by police than are white men”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim- The authors state this as an assumption: Underlying age-specific mortality risks remain constant at observed 2013–2018 levels throughout the life course.
- Premisecitation§ Risk of being killed by police use of force in the United States by age, race-ethnicity, and sex
Race, sex, and age are closely correlated with exposure to the criminal justice system.
“Prior research has clearly established that race, sex, and age are closely correlated with exposure to the criminal justice system (20)(21)(22).”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites (20)(21)(22)
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
- Study design and conductreasoning
Counts of deaths in Fatal Encounters are likely negatively biased because the data rely on media reports.
“Despite the relatively high quality of FE, because the data rely on media reports, counts of deaths are likely negatively biased.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim - Premisecitation§ Risk of being killed by police use of force in the United States by age, race-ethnicity, and sex
Police in the United States kill far more people than police in other advanced industrial democracies.
“Police in the United States kill far more people than do police in other advanced industrial democracies (13).”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites [13] 13. J. Lartey, By the numbers: US police kill more in days than other countries do in years. The Guardian, 9 June 2015. http://www.theguardian.com/us-news/2015/jun/09/the- counted-police-killings-us-vs-other-countries. Accessed 1 January 2018.
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
- Premisecitation§ Risk of being killed by police use of force in the United States by age, race-ethnicity, and sex
Age, race, and gender are central to the logics that police and legal systems use to decide who to target, how to intervene, and how much force should be applied.
“Age, race, and gender are also central to the logics that police and legal systems use to decide who to target, how to intervene, and how much force should be applied in the process of policing (5,(23)(24)(25)(26).”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites (5,(23)(24)(25)(26)
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
- Study design and conductown data
About 9% of Fatal Encounters cases between 2013 and 2018 are missing data on race-ethnicity.
“Between 2013 and 2018, about 9% of FE cases are missing data on race-ethnicity (SI Appendix, Table S1).”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Study design and conductcitation
Fatal Encounters does not currently collect data on variables that may be associated with variation in risk within racial/ethnic groups, such as skin tone, multiracial identity, or social class.
“FE does not currently collect data on variables that may be associated with variation in risk within racial/ethnic groups such as skin tone, multiracial identity, or social class (38).”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites [38] 38. N. Krieger, M. V. Kiang, J. T. Chen, P. D. Waterman, Trends in US deaths due to legal intervention among black and white men, age 15-34 years, by county income level: 1960-2010. Harvard Public Health Rev. 3, 1-5 (2015). source
- Study design and conductown data
Multiple imputation results yield similar case compositions to those observed in NVSS and FE data.
“Results yield similar case compositions to those we observe in NVSS and FE data, as shown in SI Appendix, Fig. S7.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Interpretationown data
The risk of being killed by police is jointly patterned by race, gender, and age.
“Our analysis shows that the risk of being killed by police is jointly patterned by one's race, gender, and age.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim- The authors state this as an assumption: Underlying age-specific mortality risks remain constant at observed 2013–2018 levels throughout the life course.
- Study design and conductown data
The analysis lacks power to closely consider spatial and temporal trends because some groups have low age-specific risks.
“Because our analysis focuses on some groups that have low age-specific risks, we lack the power to closely consider spatial and temporal trends.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim
- May combine two claims. 12
- The quote only partly states this claim. 2
- Classified as probably not a substantial claim. 4
May combine two claims.
Study design and conductcitationThe methods may mask important subnational variation and changes in risk over time.
“While the methods used in this paper allow for nationally precise age-, race-, and gender-specific mortality estimates, they may mask important subnational variation and changes in risk over time (17,36).”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim1 of 2 sources checked- cites [17] 17. F. Edwards, M. H. Esposito, H. Lee, Risk of police-involved death by race/ethnicity and place, United States, 2012 -2018. Am. J. Public Health 108, 1241-1248 (2018). source
The Methods acknowledge that states grouped within the same Census division differ, supporting the concern that geographic grouping may obscure subnational variation. The paper uses data spanning 2012 to early 2018, but the passages do not assess changes in risk over time or say that the methods mask them. (LLM, conf=0.82)
Experimental — accuracy not yet measured - cites [36] 36. R. E Morgan, G. Kena, Criminal victimization, 2016 (NCJ, 251150, Bureau of Justice Statistics, Washington, DC, 2017).
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
May combine two claims.
Findingown data§ Risk of being killed by police use of force in the United States by age, race-ethnicity, and sexBlack men have the highest lifetime risk among the groups studied, about 1 in 1,000 over the life course.
“Risk is highest for black men, who (at current levels of risk) face about a 1 in 1,000 chance of being killed by police over the life course.”
- Also stated in: § Results · plain
“Among all groups, black men and boys face the highest lifetime risk of being killed by police.”
- Also stated in: § Results · hedged
“Our models predict that about 1 in 1,000 black men and boys will be killed by police over the life course (96 [77, 120] per 100,000).”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim- The authors state this as an assumption: Underlying age-specific mortality risks remain constant at observed 2013–2018 levels throughout the life course.
- Also stated in: § Results · plain
May combine two claims.
Findingown data§ Risk of being killed by police use of force in the United States by age, race-ethnicity, and sexAfrican American men and women, American Indian/Alaska Native men and women, and Latino men have a higher lifetime risk of being killed by police than their white peers.
“We find that African American men and women, American Indian/Alaska Native men and women, and Latino men face higher lifetime risk of being killed by police than do their white peers.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claimMay combine two claims.
Findingown data§ Risk of being killed by police use of force in the United States by age, race-ethnicity, and sexThe average lifetime odds of being killed by police are about 1 in 2,000 for men and about 1 in 33,000 for women.
“The average lifetime odds of being killed by police are about 1 in 2,000 for men and about 1 in 33,000 for women.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim- The authors state this as an assumption: Underlying age-specific mortality risks remain constant at observed 2013–2018 levels throughout the life course.
May combine two claims.
Findingown data§ Risk of being killed by police use of force in the United States by age, race-ethnicity, and sexLatina women and Asian/Pacific Islander men and women have a lower lifetime risk of being killed by police than their white peers.
“We find that Latina women and Asian/Pacific Islander men and women face lower risk of being killed by police than do their white peers.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claimMay combine two claims.
Findingown dataAt 2013-2018 risk levels, about 52 [39,68] per 100,000 men and boys and about 3 [1.5,4.5] per 100,000 women and girls in the United States will be killed by police over the life course.
“We estimate that over the life course, at levels of risk similar to those observed between 2013 and 2018, about 52 [39,68] (90% uncertainty interval) of every 100,000 men and boys in the United States will be killed by police use of force over the life course, and about 3 [1.5, 4.5] of every 100,000 women and girls will be killed by police over the life course.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim- The authors state this as an assumption: Underlying age-specific mortality risks remain constant at observed 2013–2018 levels throughout the life course.
May combine two claims.
Findingown dataThe ratio of police use-of-force deaths to all deaths is strongly correlated with age and race and is starkly unequal across racial groups.
“However, this ratio is strongly correlated with age and race and is starkly unequal across racial groups.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claimThe quote only partly states this claim.
Findingnone givenFor women ages 20-24, police use of force is responsible for 0.16% of all deaths of Latina women.
“0.16% of all deaths of Latina women”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimMay combine two claims.
Findingnone givenAsian/Pacific Islander men and women are more than 50% less likely to be killed by police than white men and women, respectively.
“Both Asian/Pacific Islander men and women are more than 50% less likely to be killed by police than are white men and women, respectively.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim- The authors state this as an assumption: Underlying age-specific mortality risks remain constant at observed 2013–2018 levels throughout the life course.
May combine two claims.
Findingown dataPolice use of force accounts for 0.05% of all male deaths and 0.003% of all female deaths in the United States.
“Police use of force accounts for 0.05% of all male deaths in the United States and 0.003% of all female deaths”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimThe quote only partly states this claim.
Findingnone givenFor women ages 20-24, police use of force is responsible for 0.11% of all deaths of white women.
“0.11% of all deaths of white women.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimProbably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S3 (load-bearing).
PremisecitationRacially unequal exposure to the risk of state violence has profound consequences for public health, democracy, and racial stratification.
“Racially unequal exposure to the risk of state violence has profound consequences for public health, democracy, and racial stratification (5,(7)(8)(9)11).”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites (5,(7)(8)(9)11)
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).
PremisecitationPrior research suggests that despite high contemporary rates, the risk of being killed by police was higher in decades past.
“Prior research suggests that despite high contemporary rates, the risk of being killed by police was higher in decades past (37).”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites [37] 37. C. T. Ross, A multi-level Bayesian analysis of racial bias in police shootings at the county-level in the United States, 2011 -2014. PLoS One 10, e0141854 (2015). source
Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S3 (load-bearing).
PremisecitationThe meaning of race, age, and gender for police violence emerges in interactions between how officers perceive an individual's identity and the salience of these classifications for perceptions of criminality, belonging, and dangerousness.
“The meaning of race, age, and gender for police violence emerges in the interactions between how officers perceive an individual's identity and the salience of these classifications for perceptions of criminality, belonging, and dangerousness (1,10,25,39).”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 4 sources checked- cites [1] 1. S. Alang, D. McAlpine, E. McCreedy, R. Hardeman, Police brutality and black health: Setting the agenda for public health scholars. Am. J. Public Health 107, 662-665 (2017). source
- cites [10] 10. K. G. Muhammad, The Condemnation of Blackness: Race, Crime, and the Making of Modern Urban America (Harvard University Press, Cambridge, MA, 2011). source
- cites [25] 25. J. Legewie, M. Schaeffer, Contested boundaries: Explaining where ethnoracial diversity provokes neighborhood conflict. Am. J. Sociol. 122, 125-161 (2016). source
- cites [39] 39. E. P. Monk, The cost of color: Skin color, discrimination, and health among African- Americans. Am. J. Sociol. 121, 396-444 (2015). source
Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).
PremisecitationAusterity in social welfare and public health programs has led to police and prisons becoming catchall responses to social problems.
“Austerity in social welfare and public health programs has led to police and prisons becoming catchall responses to social problems (43,44).”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 2 sources checked- cites [43] 43. L. W. Sherman, Reducing fatal police shootings as system crashes: Research, theory, and practice. Annu. Rev. Criminol. 1, 421-449 (2018).
- cites [44] 44. R. Gilmore, Golden Gulag: Prisons, Surplus, Crisis, and Opposition in Globalizing California (University of California Press, Berkeley, CA, 2007).
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
May combine two claims.
Interpretationnone givenPolice violence is a leading cause of death for young men, and young men of color face exceptionally high risk of being killed by police.
“Police violence is a leading cause of death for young men, and young men of color face exceptionally high risk of being killed by police.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimMay combine two claims.
PremisecitationFatal Encounters provides more comprehensive data on police-involved deaths than official mortality files, has broader scope than similar unofficial efforts, and has been endorsed as a sound source by the Bureau of Justice Statistics.
“FE provides more comprehensive data on police-involved deaths than do official mortality files (34), has a broader scope than similar unofficial efforts to document deaths, and has been endorsed as a sound source of data by the Bureau of Justice Statistics (47).”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 2 sources checked- cites [34] 34. J. M. Feldman, S. Gruskin, B. A. Coull, N. Krieger, Killed by police: Validity of media- based data and misclassification of death certificates in Massachusetts, 2004-2016. source
- cites [47] 47. National Center for Health Statistics, Multiple cause of death data, 2000 -2017. https://www.nber.org/data/vital-statistics-mortality-data-multiple-cause-of-death. html. Accessed 25 January 2019.
May combine two claims.
Study design and conductown dataListwise deletion of missing cases unrealistically understates uncertainty in parameter estimates and negatively biases mortality risk estimates.
“List- wise deletion of missing cases unrealistically understates uncertainty in our parameter estimates and negatively biases mortality risk estimates (SI Appendix, Fig. S8).”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
The authors state this as an assumption.
Underlying age-specific mortality risks remain constant at observed 2013–2018 levels throughout the life course.
“with the central assumption that risk profiles observed between 2013 and 2018 remain stable”
“with the key assumption that underlying age-specific mortality risks remain constant at observed levels throughout the life course”
Claims other papers make about this one
Each is checked against this paper’s own text: does it say what the citing paper says it does?
If the pattern of Black victims being more likely to survive holds nationwide, then racial disparities in police use of deadly force have been underestimated based on the racial makeup of the population.
“If this pattern holds true nationwide, it means we have underestimated the extent of racial disparities in police use of deadly force based on the racial makeup of the population [2, 3, 26].”
From Factors associated with police shooting mortality: A focus on race and a plea for more comprehensive data (2021) · cites this paper as [26]
The Research Strategy and Key Findings section reports national racial disparities in deaths from police use of force. It focuses exclusively on deaths, however, and does not assess whether Black victims are more likely to survive or whether survival differences would mean that disparities have been underestimated. Page numbers were not available in our copy. (LLM, conf=0.82)
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredPrior research suggests the risk of being killed by police is highest for all racial groups between ages 20 and 35.
“Prior research suggests the risk of being killed by police is highest for all racial groups between the ages of 20 and 35 [26].”
From Factors associated with police shooting mortality: A focus on race and a plea for more comprehensive data (2021) · cites this paper as [26]
The evidence is mixed as to whether CITs are effective at preventing police violence.
“The evidence is mixed as to whether CITs are effective at preventing police violence (80, 81).”
From Structural Racism and Suicide Prevention for Ethnoracially Minoritized Youth: A Conceptual Framework and Illustration Across Systems (2022) · cites this paper as [80]
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LIVING HISTORIES OF WHITE SUPREMACIST POLICING
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Flagged first, then by citations
Research works printed but not linked: 3
- J. Soss, V. Weaver, Learning from Ferguson: Policing, race, and class in American politics. Annu. Rev. Polit. Sci. 20, 565–591 (2017).
- A. S. Vitale, The End of Policing (Verso Books, New York, NY, 2017).
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Cited by
Sorted by citations
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The ecological and evolutionary consequences of systemic racism in urban environments
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“In addition, such movements have traditionally considered structural violence to be unrelated to environmental issues, yet state-sanctioned police brutality (149, 150), environmental degradation (113), and the climate crisis (53, 147) all reinforce patterns of racial segregation and criminalization of minoritized peop…”
BackgroundOgbonnaya-Ogburu, I. F., Smith, A. D. R., To, A., & Toyama, K. (2020) · CHI Conference on Human Factors in Computing Systems · doi:10.1145/3313831.3376392 · Cited by 404 · see citing works
Administrative Records Mask Racially Biased Policing
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“The fi eld ’ s relative inattention to policing was made evident by several recent of fi cer-involved shootings of unarmed black men (Edwards, Lee, and Esposito 2019) and subsequent social unrest that caught many political scientists fl atfooted, with little systematic evidence to offer as the demand…”
Anglin, D. M., Ereshefsky, S., Klaunig, M. J., Bridgwater, M. A., Niendam, T. A., Ellman, L. M., DeVylder, J., Thayer, G., Bolden, K. A., Musket, C. W., et al. (2021) · American Journal of Psychiatry · doi:10.1176/appi.ajp.2020.20071091 · Cited by 240 · see citing works
“Black men, speci fi cally, have a 1 in 1,000 chance of being a victim of lethal force by police over their lifetime, in contrast to 39 in 100,000 for their White counterparts (93).”
BackgroundThe emotional and mental health impact of the murder of George Floyd on the US population
Eichstaedt, J. C., Sherman, G. T., Giorgi, S., Roberts, S. O., Reynolds, M. E., Ungar, L., & Guntuku, S. C. (2021) · Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences · doi:10.1073/pnas.2109139118 · Cited by 223 · see citing works
“*These numbers are likely underestimated due to underreporting and difficulty in collecting data (4).”
The Effects of Police Violence on Inner-City Students*
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Fatal police violence by race and state in the USA, 1980–2019: a network meta-regression
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The road ahead in genetics and genomics
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“From the complete Fatal Encounters data for these years, we followed Edwards, Lee, and Esposito [17] and excluded 1,670 cases (23.”
BackgroundInfluentialRacial inequity in fatal US police shootings, 2015–2020
Lett, E., Asabor, E., Corbin, T., & Boatright, D. (2020) · Journal of Epidemiology and Community Health · doi:10.1136/jech-2020-215097 · Cited by 101 · see citing works
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The American racial divide in fear of the police
Pickett, J. T., Graham, A., & Cullen, F. T. (2022) · Criminology · doi:10.1111/1745-9125.12298 · Cited by 152 · see citing works
Illness spillovers of lethal police violence: the significance of gendered marginalization
Sewell, A. A., Feldman, J. M., Ray, R., Gilbert, K. L., Jefferson, K. A., & Lee, H. (2020) · Ethnic and Racial Studies · doi:10.1080/01419870.2020.1781913 · Cited by 97 · see citing works
Self-citationCultural trauma as a fundamental cause of health disparities
Subica, A. M., & Link, B. G. (2022) · Social Science & Medicine · doi:10.1016/j.socscimed.2021.114574 · Cited by 123 · see citing works
“, racially-biased police violence) (Edwards et al., 2019; Nix et al., 2017; Williamson et al., 2018).”
Hardeman, R. R., Medina, E., & Boyd, R. W. (2020) · New England Journal of Medicine · doi:10.1056/nejmp2021072 · Cited by 118 · see citing works
What the data say about police brutality and racial bias — and which reforms might work
Peeples, L. (2020) · Nature · doi:10.1038/d41586-020-01846-z · Cited by 110 · see citing works
Police Violence and Public Health
DeVylder, J., Anglin, D. M., Bowleg, L., Fedina, L., & Link, B. G. (2021) · Annual Review of Clinical Psychology · doi:10.1146/annurev-clinpsy-072720-020644 · Cited by 113 · see citing works
Is Representation Enough? Racial Disparities in Levels of Force and Arrests by Police
Headley, A. M., & Wright, J. E. (2020) · Public Administration Review · doi:10.1111/puar.13225 · Cited by 110 · see citing works
Public Concern About Violence, Firearms, and the COVID-19 Pandemic in California
Kravitz‐Wirtz, N., Aubel, A. J., Schleimer, J. P., Pallin, R., & Wintemute, G. J. (2021) · JAMA Network Open · doi:10.1001/jamanetworkopen.2020.33484 · Cited by 103 · see citing works
“Survey questions for this study covered 4 broad domains, as follows: (1) worry about violence happening to oneself, by type of violence (ie, homicide, suicide, mass shooting, assault, robbery, police violence, accidental shooting, and stray bullet shooting) and incident location, before and during the pandemic; (2) co…”
Background“The Talk” and Parenting While Black in America: Centering Race, Resistance, and Refuge
Anderson, L. A., Caughy, M. O., & Owen, M. T. (2021) · Journal of Black Psychology · doi:10.1177/00957984211034294 · Cited by 109 · see citing works
“According to Edwards et al. (2019), use of force by police is a leading cause of death for young men of color in the US.”
BackgroundInfluentialTranslating promise into practice: a review of machine learning in suicide research and prevention
Kirtley, O. J., van Mens, K., Hoogendoorn, M., Kapur, N., & de Beurs, D. (2022) · The Lancet Psychiatry · doi:10.1016/s2215-0366(21)00254-6 · Cited by 100 · see citing works
Structurally vulnerable neighbourhood environments and racial/ethnic COVID-19 inequities
Berkowitz, R. L., Gao, X., Michaels, E. K., & Mujahid, M. S. (2020) · Cities & Health · doi:10.1080/23748834.2020.1792069 · Cited by 95 · see citing works
“…and those with large communities of colour are more likely to experience police killings (Feldman et al. 2019), and African Americans, American Indians/ Alaskan Natives, and Latino men have a higher lifetime risk of being killed by police compared to non-Hispanic whites (Edwards et al. 2019).”
BackgroundNumbers will not save us: Agonistic data practices
Crooks, R. N., & Currie, M. E. (2021) · The Information Society · doi:10.1080/01972243.2021.1920081 · Cited by 92 · see citing works
“Such a formulation imagines that emergent sources of data coupled with analytic technologies might improve racial disparities in law enforcement, such as the greater risk of death for Black civilians in encounters with police (Edwards, Lee, and Esposito 2019).”
BackgroundNock, M. K., Kleiman, E. M., Abraham, M. E., Bentley, K. H., Brent, D. A., Buonopane, R. J., Castro‐Ramirez, F., Cha, C. B., Dempsey, W., Draper, J., et al. (2020) · Psychiatric Research and Clinical Practice · doi:10.1176/appi.prcp.20200029 · Cited by 89 · see citing works
“Some experts suggested this “should be the last possible option” and noted potential negative consequences to doing so in cases of working with potentially vulnerable participants, such as racial/ethnic minority participants, who experience significantly higher rates of physical force and death in police‐initiated con…”
BackgroundSelf-citationToo much policing: Why calls are made to defund the police
Cobbina, J., & Jones‐Brown, D. (2021) · Punishment & Society · doi:10.1177/14624745211045652 · Cited by 87 · see citing works
“…policing and over-reliance on police authority People of color (POC), especially individuals of Black racial identity, regardless of nationality or ethnicity, are at greater risk of experiencing police-involved harm than are other racial and ethnic groups (Brame et al., 2021; Edwards et al., 2019).”
BackgroundInfluentialThe Slow Violence of Contemporary Policing
Kramer, R. A., & Remster, B. (2021) · Annual Review of Criminology · doi:10.1146/annurev-criminol-030321-041307 · Cited by 88 · see citing works
Racism and Health in the United States: A Policy Statement From the American College of Physicians
Serchen, J., Doherty, R. B., Atiq, O. T., & Hilden, D. R. (2020) · Annals of Internal Medicine · doi:10.7326/m20-4195 · Cited by 86 · see citing works
An Expert Discussion on Structural Racism in Autism Research and Practice
Jones, D. R., Nicolaidis, C., Ellwood, L. J., Garcia, A., Johnson, K. R., Lopez, K., & Waisman, T. (2020) · Autism in Adulthood · doi:10.1089/aut.2020.29015.drj · Cited by 84 · see citing works
Fiftieth Anniversary of Uncovering the Tuskegee Syphilis Study: The Story and Timeless Lessons
Tobin, M. J. (2022) · American Journal of Respiratory and Critical Care Medicine · doi:10.1164/rccm.202201-0136so · Cited by 95 · see citing works
“consequent to unlawful police actions (59).”
Stelter, M., Essien, I., Sander, C., & Degner, J. (2022) · Psychological Science · doi:10.1177/09567976211051272 · Cited by 75 · see citing works
West, K., Greenland, K., & van Laar, C. (2021) · British Journal of Social Psychology · doi:10.1111/bjso.12458 · Cited by 75 · see citing works
Police Force Size and Civilian Race
Chalfin, A. J., Hansen, B., Weisburst, E., & Williams, M. C. (2020) · American Economic Review Insights · doi:10.1257/aeri.20200792 · Cited by 94 · see citing works
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Causadías, J. M. (2020) · Applied Developmental Science · doi:10.1080/10888691.2020.1789360 · Cited by 85 · see citing works
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Williams, M. T., Osman, M., Gran-Ruaz, S., & Lopez, J. (2021) · Current Treatment Options in Psychiatry · doi:10.1007/s40501-021-00250-2 · Cited by 68 · see citing works
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“Recent scholarship has highlighted the role of police violence in shaping population health patterns and generating particularly stark racial disparities in mortality risk (Edwards, Lee, and Esposito 2019).”
BackgroundThreat of racial and economic inequality increases preference for algorithm decision-making
Bigman, Y., Yam, K. C., Marciano, D., Reynolds, S. J., & Gray, K. J. (2021) · Computers in Human Behavior · doi:10.1016/j.chb.2021.106859 · Cited by 64 · see citing works
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Willis, D. E., Andersen, J. A., Montgomery, B. E. E., Selig, J. P., Shah, S. K., Zaller, N. D., Bryant‐Moore, K., Scott, A. J., Williams, M. L., & McElfish, P. A. (2022) · Journal of Racial and Ethnic Health Disparities · doi:10.1007/s40615-022-01290-x · Cited by 63 · see citing works
“Black men face a 1 in 1000 chance of being killed by police over the course of their life—more than double the risk for white men—making it a leading cause of death [45].”
BackgroundExposure to the US Criminal Legal System and Well-Being: A 2018 Cross-Sectional Study.
Sundaresh, R., Yi, Y., Roy, B., Riley, C., Wildeman, C., & Wang, E. (2020) · American Journal of Public Health · doi:10.2105/ajph.2019.305414 · Cited by 44 · see citing works
Police Violence Reduces Civilian Cooperation and Engagement with Law EnforcementPreprint
Ang, D., Bencsik, P., Bruhn, J., & Derenoncourt, E. (2021) · SSRN Electronic Journal · doi:10.2139/ssrn.3920493 · Cited by 56 · see citing works
“Though researchers disagree on whether officers discriminate in the use of force,5 Black and Hispanic individuals are far more likely than other groups to experience police violence and to believe that it is an important public issue (AP-NORC, 2015; Edwards et al., 2019).”
BackgroundNix, J., & Shjarback, J. A. (2021) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0259024 · Cited by 57 · see citing works
“Compared to the attention paid to fatal police shootings in recent years [2, 3, 26, 27], nonfatal injurious police shootings are far less scrutinized.”
BackgroundBeyond a Moment — Reckoning with Our History and Embracing Antiracism in Medicine
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Fader, J. J. (2021) · Criminology · doi:10.1111/1745-9125.12271 · Cited by 57 · see citing works
“This is consistent with prior research on racial differences in worry about police brutality (Graham et al., 2020) as well as actuarial estimates of risk of being killed by police use of force for Black men in his age group (Edwards et al., 2019).”
ResultMeasuring disparities in police use of force and injury among persons with serious mental illness
Laniyonu, A., & Goff, P. A. (2021) · BMC Psychiatry · doi:10.1186/s12888-021-03510-w · Cited by 56 · see citing works
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“, Schorr, 2008) despite Black Americans experiencing worse outcomes than White Americans in domains ranging from education and socioeconomic outcomes to police treatment and health (e.g., EdBuild, 2019; Edwards et al., 2019; Gawthrop, 2022; McIntosh et al., 2020).”
BackgroundImpact of COVID-19 on Medical Education: Perspectives From Students.
Walters, M., Alonge, T., & Zeller, M. P. (2022) · PubMed · doi:10.1097/acm.0000000000004525 · Cited by 28 · see citing works
Biological Embedding of Chronic Stress Across Two Generations Within Marginalized Communities
Conradt, E. D., Carter, S. E., & Crowell, S. E. (2020) · Child Development Perspectives · doi:10.1111/cdep.12382 · Cited by 56 · see citing works
Structural Racism and the COVID-19 Experience in the United States
Dickinson, K. L., Roberts, J. D., Banacos, N., Neuberger, L., Koebele, E. A., Blanch‐Hartigan, D., & Shanahan, E. A. (2021) · Health Security · doi:10.1089/hs.2021.0031 · Cited by 54 · see citing works
“64 Against this backdrop, many Black people have seen mask wearing as requiring a difficult choice between avoiding COVID-19 and avoiding additional interactions with police.”
Ferguson, G. M., Eales, L., Gillespie, S., & Leneman, K. B. (2021) · American Psychologist · doi:10.1037/amp0000874 · Cited by 53 · see citing works
Contested Killings: The Mobilizing Effects of Community Contact with Police Violence
MORRIS, K. T., & Shoub, K. (2023) · American Political Science Review · doi:10.1017/s0003055423000321 · Cited by 57 · see citing works
“…their lifespans and one in thirty-three thousand women are at risk of being shot and killed, with these rates being lower for white individuals and higher for Black ones (Edwards, Lee, and Esposito 2019), whereas the risk for being pulled over, being arrested, or being incarcerated is much higher.”
BackgroundThe Interpersonal Theory of Suicide: State of the Science
Robison, M., Udupa, N. S., Rice, T. B., Wilson, E., Joiner, T. E., & Rogers, M. L. (2024) · Behavior Therapy · doi:10.1016/j.beth.2024.04.008 · Cited by 55 · see citing works
“Defund the police:” Perceptions among protesters in the 2020 March on Washington
Cobbina, J., Chaudhuri, S., LaCourse, A., & DeJong, C. (2022) · Criminology & Public Policy · doi:10.1111/1745-9133.12571 · Cited by 53 · see citing works
Brown, L. L., Abrams, L. R., Mitchell, U. A., & Ailshire, J. (2020) · Innovation in Aging · doi:10.1093/geroni/igaa040 · Cited by 64 · see citing works
“The coronavirus pandemic places an undue burden on older black adults who are at disproportionate risk of mortality (70) coupled with the fact that black Americans face a higher risk of policeinvolved death (33).”
BackgroundExposure to police-related deaths and physiological stress among urban black youth
Browning, C. R., Tarrence, J. A., LaPlant, E. G., Boettner, B. L., Schmeer, K. K., Calder, C. A., Way, B. M., & Ford, J. L. (2020) · Psychoneuroendocrinology · doi:10.1016/j.psyneuen.2020.104884 · Cited by 47 · see citing works
“Black females are more likely to be killed by police than are white females (Edwards et al., 2019).”
BackgroundResearch on Anti-Black Racism in Organizations: Insights, Ideas, and Considerations
King, D. D., Hall, A. V., Johnson, L. U., CARTER, J. H., Burrows, D. N., & Samuel, N. N. (2022) · Journal of Business and Psychology · doi:10.1007/s10869-022-09804-4 · Cited by 51 · see citing works
“, 2010)), both Black men and women are at higher risk of being killed by police than their White peers (Edwards et al., 2019).”
BackgroundBennell, C., Jenkins, B., Blaskovits, B., Semple, T., Khanizadeh, A., Brown, A. S., & Jones, N. J. (2022) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2022.818009 · Cited by 47 · see citing works
Grooms, J. (2020) · The Review of Black Political Economy · doi:10.1177/0034644620911381 · Cited by 46 · see citing works
“Edwards et al. (2019) find police violence to be the “leading cause of death for young men in the United States.””
BackgroundPolicing the Block: Pandemics, Systemic Racism, and the Blood of America
Sewell, A. A. (2020) · City and Community · doi:10.1111/cico.12517 · Cited by 25 · see citing works
Young Adults’ Distress About Police Brutality Following the Death of George Floyd
Howard, L. C., Krueger, E. A., Barker, J., Cruz, T. B., Cwalina, S. N., Unger, J., Barrington-Trimis, J., & Leventhal, A. M. (2022) · Youth & Society · doi:10.1177/0044118x221087282 · Cited by 36 · see citing works
“…are mistreated and subjected to excessive and unwarranted use of force by law enforcement—often resulting in murder—in the United States (Chaney & Robertson, 2013; Peeples, 2019; Weir, 2016); For instance, Black men are 2.5 times as likely as White men to be killed by police (Edwards et al., 2019).”
BackgroundInfluentialAn Intersectional‐Contextual Approach to Racial Trauma Exposure Risk and Coping Among Black Youth
Galán, C. A., Auguste, E. E., Smith, N. A., & Meza, J. I. (2022) · Journal of Research on Adolescence · doi:10.1111/jora.12757 · Cited by 43 · see citing works
“Further, there is evidence that Black girls are subject to lethal and excessive force from law enforcement at rates that mirror the experiences of Black boys, and are disproportionately affected by police sexual violence (Edwards et al., 2019; Tromadore, 2016).”
BackgroundPolice brutality and racism in America
Schwartz, S. A. (2020) · EXPLORE · doi:10.1016/j.explore.2020.06.010 · Cited by 44 · see citing works
Doucette, M. L., Ward, J. A., McCourt, A. D., Webster, D. W., & Crifasi, C. K. (2022) · Journal of Urban Health · doi:10.1007/s11524-022-00627-5 · Cited by 44 · see citing works
Saelee, R., Haardörfer, R., Johnson, D. A., Gazmararian, J. A., & Suglia, S. F. (2022) · American Journal of Epidemiology · doi:10.1093/aje/kwac156 · Cited by 43 · see citing works
Structural racism theory, measurement, and methods: A scoping review
Wien, S., Miller, A. L., & Kramer, M. R. (2023) · Frontiers in Public Health · doi:10.3389/fpubh.2023.1069476 · Cited by 46 · see citing works
“However, the use of policereported data requires the assumption that police reported crime is both an accurate measure of true neighborhood crime, and possibly the additional assumption that police behavior does not affect health, despite that policing—particularly racialized policing—is a form of violence (23, 132).”
BackgroundWu, D. J., Sánchez, S., & Perry, S. (2022) · Current Opinion in Psychology · doi:10.1016/j.copsyc.2022.101420 · Cited by 41 · see citing works
Zivilgesellschaftliche Organisation und Praxis im Themenfeld Polizei und Rassismus/Diskriminierung
Görgen, T., & Wagner, D. (2022) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-3-658-37133-3_21 · Cited by 42 · see citing works
Imai, K., Olivella, S., & Rosenman, E. T. R. (2022) · Science Advances · doi:10.1126/sciadv.adc9824 · Cited by 44 · see citing works
“Recent applications of the BISG methodology include studies on racial disparity in police violence (5), eviction (6), suicide (7), and turnout (8).”
What the data say about police shootings
Peeples, L. (2019) · Nature · doi:10.1038/d41586-019-02601-9 · Cited by 43 · see citing works
Lee, J. R. S., Hunter, A. G., Priolli, F., & Thornton, V. J. (2020) · Journal of Applied Developmental Psychology · doi:10.1016/j.appdev.2020.101180 · Cited by 42 · see citing works
Fisher, A. P., Lynch, J. D., Jacquez, F., Mitchell, M. J., Kamimura-Nishimura, K. I., & Wade, S. L. (2022) · Autism · doi:10.1177/13623613221128171 · Cited by 43 · see citing works
“Previous research has documented that understanding ASD symptoms can facilitate early diagnosis and greater awareness of children’s service needs (Edwards et al., 2019).”
BackgroundCivic Responses to Police Violence
Ang, D., & Tebes, J. (2023) · American Political Science Review · doi:10.1017/s0003055423000515 · Cited by 47 · see citing works
“…(Durlauf and Heckman 2020; Fryer 2019; Hoekstra and Sloan 2022; Knox, Lowe, and Mummolo 2020), relative to their population shares, Black and Hispanic individuals are significantly more likely to die at the hands of police than their white and Asian counterparts (Edwards, Lee, and Esposito 2019).”
BackgroundInterrogating Whiteness in Community Research and Action
Coleman, B. R., Collins, C. R., & Bonam, C. M. (2020) · American Journal of Community Psychology · doi:10.1002/ajcp.12473 · Cited by 42 · see citing works
Toward a General Causal Framework for the Study of Racial Bias in Policing
Knox, D., & Mummolo, J. (2020) · Journal of Political Institutions and Political Economy · doi:10.1561/113.00000018 · Cited by 38 · see citing works
“For example, researchers have found that racial minorities are killed by police in numbers that are disproportionate to their share of the jurisdiction population (Edwards et al. , 2019).”
BackgroundInfluentialHarris, A. N., & Amutah‐Onukagha, N. (2019) · Journal of Black Psychology · doi:10.1177/0095798419887069 · Cited by 38 · see citing works
Ross, P. T., Lypson, M. L., Byington, C. L., Sánchez, J. P., Wong, B. M., & Kumagai, A. K. (2020) · Academic Medicine · doi:10.1097/acm.0000000000003756 · Cited by 38 · see citing works
“Black people are subjected to physical violence at the hands of law enforcement and the criminal justice system.(3,4) Too often these acts of violence are dismissed as isolated incidents or justified by the “few bad apples theory,”(5) which suggests that these actions are individual in nature and do not represent the…”
BackgroundPerceptions of Violent Encounters between Police and Young Black Men across Stakeholder Groups
Calvert, C., Brady, S. S., & Jones‐Webb, R. (2020) · Journal of Urban Health · doi:10.1007/s11524-019-00417-6 · Cited by 37 · see citing works
Victimhood: The most powerful force in morality and politics
Gray, K. J., & Kubin, E. (2024) · Advances in experimental social psychology · doi:10.1016/bs.aesp.2024.03.004 · Cited by 43 · see citing works
Shjarback, J. A., & Nix, J. (2019) · Journal of Criminal Justice · doi:10.1016/j.jcrimjus.2019.101653 · Cited by 38 · see citing works
Jahn, J. L., Krieger, N., Agénor, M., Leung, M., Davis, B. A., Weisskopf, M. G., & Chen, J. T. (2021) · EClinicalMedicine · doi:10.1016/j.eclinm.2021.100901 · Cited by 36 · see citing works
Rudzki, E. N., Kuebbing, S. E., Clark, D. R., Gharaibeh, B., Janecka, M. J., Kramp, R. D., Kohl, K. D., Mastalski, T., Ohmer, M. E. B., Turcotte, M. M., et al. (2022) · Methods in Ecology and Evolution · doi:10.1111/2041-210x.13970 · Cited by 35 · see citing works
Health Effects of Policing in Hospitals: a Narrative Review
Gallen, K., Sonnenberg, J., Loughran, C., Smith, M. J. S., Sheppard, M., Schuster, K., Kaufman, E. J., Song, J. S., & Hall, E. C. (2022) · Journal of Racial and Ethnic Health Disparities · doi:10.1007/s40615-022-01275-w · Cited by 37 · see citing works
Auguste, E. E., Bowdring, M. A., Kasparek, S. W., McPhee, J., Tabachnick, A. R., Tung, I., (SEED), S. F. E. E. A. D., & Galán, C. A. (2023) · Perspectives on Psychological Science · doi:10.1177/17456916221141374 · Cited by 40 · see citing works
“Yet the predominant system of mental-health-crisis response in the United States is grounded in a criminal legal system that disproportionately harms individuals with mental illness, Black people, and people who have both identities (e.g., F. Edwards et al., 2019).”
BackgroundWhy Racial Justice Matters in Radiation Oncology
Chapman, C. H., Gabeau, D., Pinnix, C. C., et al. (2020) · Advances in Radiation Oncology · doi:10.1016/j.adro.2020.06.013 · Cited by 35 · see citing works
Zeiders, K. H., Umaña‐Taylor, A. J., Carbajal, S., & Pech, A. S. (2021) · Journal of Adolescence · doi:10.1016/j.adolescence.2021.06.001 · Cited by 34 · see citing works
Roscigno, V. J., & Preito-Hodge, K. (2021) · Socius Sociological Research for a Dynamic World · doi:10.1177/2378023120980913 · Cited by 34 · see citing works
“…a focus that has likewise seen similar emphases in recent sociological attention to racism in policing (e.g., Preito-Hodge 2020b; Ray 2020a), police reliance on deadly force (Hirschfield 2015; PreitoHodge and Tomaskovic-Devey 2020), and police violence on communities of color (Edwards et al. 2019).”
BackgroundJackson, D. B., Testa, A. M., Fix, R. L., & Mendelson, T. (2021) · American Journal of Public Health · doi:10.2105/ajph.2021.306434 · Cited by 34 · see citing works
Race and Ethnicity and the Utilization of Security Responses in a Hospital Setting
Valtis, Y. K., Stevenson, K. E., Murphy, E. M., Hong, J. Y., Ali, M. H., Shah, S. B., Taylor, A. D., Sivashanker, K., & Shannon, E. M. (2022) · Journal of General Internal Medicine · doi:10.1007/s11606-022-07525-1 · Cited by 35 · see citing works
“showed that Black patients had significantly higher odds of being physically restrained compared to white patients during an emergency department visit at another tertiary Boston hospital.(11) The authors were unable to construct a multivariable model with all relevant covariates”
BackgroundTwitter Corpus of the #BlackLivesMatter Movement and Counter Protests: 2013 to 2021
Giorgi, S., Guntuku, S. C., Himelein-Wachowiak, M., Kwarteng, A. E., Hwang, S., Rahman, M., & Curtis, B. L. (2022) · Proceedings of the International AAAI Conference on Web and Social Media · doi:10.1609/icwsm.v16i1.19373 · Cited by 34 · see citing works
“Multiple studies have shown the presence of racial bias in police violence (Ross 2015; Col-laborators et al. 2021), with police use of force being one of the leading causes of death for Black men between 25 and 29 years of age (Edwards, Lee, and Esposito 2019).”
Boxer, P., Brunson, R. K., Gaylord‐Harden, N. K., Kahn, K. B., Patton, D. U., Richardson, J. B., Rivera, L. M., Lee, J. R. S., Staller, M. S., Krahé, B., et al. (2021) · Aggressive Behavior · doi:10.1002/ab.21970 · Cited by 31 · see citing works
“…database (see Brunson, 2021; Goff & Kahn, 2012), has led to independent efforts such as Mapping Police Violence as White and Hispanic men and women (Edwards et al., 2019), while Black youth are six times more likely and Hispanic youth three times more likely to be shot to death by police…”
BackgroundBenner, A. D., Wang, Y., Chen, S., & Boyle, A. E. (2022) · Developmental Review · doi:10.1016/j.dr.2022.101025 · Cited by 35 · see citing works
Structural Racism as a Proximal Cause for Race-Related Differences in Psychiatric Disorders
Harnett, N. G., & Ressler, K. J. (2021) · American Journal of Psychiatry · doi:10.1176/appi.ajp.2021.21050486 · Cited by 32 · see citing works
From public safety to public health: Re-envisioning the goals and methods of policing
Goulka, J., del Pozo, B., & Beletsky, L. (2021) · Journal of community safety & well-being · doi:10.35502/jcswb.184 · Cited by 22 · see citing works
“Continuing to highlight the experience of Black Americans, they are also the group at greatest risk of being killed during a police encounter, with the lifetime odds of being killed by police approximately 1 in 1,000 (Edwards et al., 2019).”
BackgroundMoody, D. L. B., Waldstein, S. R., Leibel, D. K., Hoggard, L. S., Gee, G. C., Ashe, J. J., Brondolo, E. N., Al-Najjar, E., Evans, M. K., & Zonderman, A. B. (2021) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0251174 · Cited by 31 · see citing works
Estimating exposure to neighborhood crime by race and ethnicity for public health research
Lodge, E. K., Hoyo, C., Gutiérrez, C., Rappazzo, K. M., Emch, M., & Martin, C. L. (2021) · BMC Public Health · doi:10.1186/s12889-021-11057-4 · Cited by 32 · see citing works
“at the hands of police than Black or Latinx people [26, 27, 44], and are more likely to support increased funding”
BackgroundMechanisms Connecting Police Brutality, Intersectionality, and Women’s Health Over the Life Course
Alang, S., Haile, R., Hardeman, R. R., & Judson, J. (2023) · American Journal of Public Health · doi:10.2105/ajph.2022.307064 · Cited by 32 · see citing works
Haile, R., Rowell‐Cunsolo, T. L., Hyacinthe, M.-F., & Alang, S. (2023) · Social Science & Medicine · doi:10.1016/j.socscimed.2023.115784 · Cited by 31 · see citing works
Police Force Size and Civilian Race
Chalfin, A. J., Hansen, B., Weisburst, E., & Williams, M. C. (2020) · National Bureau of Economic Research · doi:10.3386/w28202 · Cited by 30 · see citing works
“Indeed, over the life course, about 1 in every 1,000 Black men can expect to be shot by police (Edwards et al., 2019).”
BackgroundSpolum, M. M., Lopez, W. D., Watkins, D. C., & Fleming, P. J. (2023) · American Journal of Public Health · doi:10.2105/ajph.2022.307107 · Cited by 30 · see citing works
- Authors
- Edwards, F., Lee, H., & Esposito, M.
- Affiliations
- Rutgers, The State University of New Jersey (US)
- Washington University in St. Louis (US)
- University of Michigan (US)
- Corresponding author
- Edwards, Frank
- Venue
- Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences
- Publisher
- National Academy of Sciences
- Published
- 2019-08-05
- Volume
- 116
- Issue
- 34
- Pages
- 16793-16798
- ISSN
- 0027-8424 (ISSN-L)
- 1091-6490
- PMC
- PMC6708348
- OpenAlex
- W2965198355
- Cited by
- 916
- References
- 54
- Citations by year
- 2026: 108 · 2025: 100 · 2024: 113 · 2023: 151 · 2022: 188 · 2021: 161 · 2020: 85 · 2019: 7
- FWCI
- 467.55
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- bronze
- doi.org
- Locations
- Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences (publishedVersion)
- Europe PMC (PubMed Central) (publishedVersion)
- PubMed Central (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- RePEc: Research Papers in Economics (submittedVersion)
- SocArXiv (OSF Preprints) (submittedVersion)
- SocArXiv (OSF Preprints) (submittedVersion, cc-by)
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Political Science and International Relations › Policing Practices and Perceptions
- Social Sciences › Sociology and Political Science › Criminal Justice and Corrections Analysis
- Social Sciences › Sociology and Political Science › Racial and Ethnic Identity Research
- Keywords
- police use of force, racial disparities, age-specific risk, sex differences, African American men, Hispanic men, Hispanic women, young men of color, causes of death
- MeSH terms
- Adult, Death, Ethnicity, Female, Humans, Male, Risk, Socioeconomic Factors, United States, Police, Racial Groups, Young Adult
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