The DOI matches its Crossref record; 33 of the 35 references it cites were found in a registry or an index; 1 of the 14 sources its claims cite were checked for support.
The Equivalence of Learning Paths in Early Science Instruction: Effects of Direct Instruction and Discovery Learning
Open accessAbstract
In a study with 112 third- and fourth-grade children, we measured the relative effectiveness of discovery learning and direct instruction at two points in the learning process: (a) during the initial acquisition of the basic cognitive objective (a procedure for designing and interpreting simple, unconfounded experiments) and (b) during the subsequent transfer and application of this basic skill to more diffuse and authentic reasoning associated with the evaluation of science-fair posters. We found not only that many more children learned from direct instruction than from discovery learning, but also that when asked to make broader, richer scientific judgments, the many children who learned about experimental design from direct instruction performed as well as those few children who discovered the method on their own. These results challenge predictions derived from the presumed superiority of discovery approaches in teaching young children basic procedures for early scientific investigations.
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Claims the paper makes
1 of 14 cited sources checked · 0 supported · 0 flagged · accuracy not yet measured
The cited sources support only part of this claim — read each source’s verdict below.
In the paper
“When the direct-instruction procedure was adapted from an experimental script to a lesson plan implemented in a classroom setting, mean CVS performance increased from 30% prior to instruction to 96% following instruction (Toth, Klahr, & Chen, 2000).”
§ The Equivalence of Learning Paths in Early Science Instruction Effects of Direct Instruction and Discovery Learning > Abstract
What the sources say
- Partly supportedcites Toth, Klahr, & Chen, 2000 sourceExperimental — accuracy not yet measured
The CVS Performance section reports that mean performance in individual interviews increased from 30% before instruction to 97% after instruction, not 96%. The classroom-worksheet analysis also reports 97% after instruction, but its preinstruction figure is 58%. (LLM, conf=0.90)
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passes- Partly supported
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The results, shown in Table 2, replicated the pattern for the grand poster score: Experts and masters outperformed nonmasters, regardless of the learning paths.”
§ The Equivalence of Learning Paths in Early Science Instruction Effects of Direct Instruction and Discovery Learning > Day 2: Poster Evaluations
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesA result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Table 2 shows that experts, discovery masters, and direct-instruction masters had higher grand poster scores than discovery nonmasters and direct-instruction nonmasters, d 5 0.83.”
§ The Equivalence of Learning Paths in Early Science Instruction Effects of Direct Instruction and Discovery Learning > Day 2: Poster Evaluations
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesA result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Forty of the 52 direct-instruction children (77%) became masters, whereas only 12 of the 52 discovery children (23%) did so, w 2 (1, N 5 104) 5 28.0, p < .0001(with Yates correction).”
§ The Equivalence of Learning Paths in Early Science Instruction Effects of Direct Instruction and Discovery Learning > Day 1: CVS Exploration and Assessment
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesA result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Moreover, there were no statistical differences among the grand poster scores for experts, discovery masters, and direct-instruction masters.”
§ The Equivalence of Learning Paths in Early Science Instruction Effects of Direct Instruction and Discovery Learning > Day 2: Poster Evaluations
Load-bearingStrength:plain· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesA result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“We found not only that many more children learned from direct instruction than from discovery learning, but also that when asked to make broader, richer scientific judgments, the many children who learned about experimental design from direct instruction performed as well as those few children who discovered the method on their own.”
- Also stated in: § Day 1: CVS Exploration and Assessment · plain
“direct instruction produced many more masters than did discovery learning.”
- Also stated in: § DISCUSSION · boosted
“these results replicate other studies in which direct instruction was clearly superior to discovery learning in facilitating children's acquisition of CVS”
§ The Equivalence of Learning Paths in Early Science Instruction Effects of Direct Instruction and Discovery Learning > Abstract
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passes- Also stated in: § Day 1: CVS Exploration and Assessment · plain
In the paper
“Chen and Klahr (1999) demonstrated that direct instruction on CVS led to statistically and educationally significant improvement in children's ability to design simple, unconfounded experiments.”
§ The Equivalence of Learning Paths in Early Science Instruction Effects of Direct Instruction and Discovery Learning > Abstract
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Chen and Klahr (1999) source
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesA conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Children who became masters via direct instruction were as skilled at evaluating science-fair posters as were discovery-learning masters and experts.”
- Also stated in: § Day 2: Poster Evaluations · plain
“In other words, the grand poster scores of the three groups that achieved high levels of CVS performance via different paths were indistinguishable.”
§ The Equivalence of Learning Paths in Early Science Instruction Effects of Direct Instruction and Discovery Learning > DISCUSSION
Load-bearingStrength:plain· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passes- Rests on an assumption: The two science-fair posters used in the transfer task are highly imperfect and thus afford wide-ranging evaluations.
- Also stated in: § Day 2: Poster Evaluations · plain
In the paper
“Moreover, students receiving direct instruction were superior to control students on a far-transfer test of experimental design administered 7 months later.”
§ The Equivalence of Learning Paths in Early Science Instruction Effects of Direct Instruction and Discovery Learning > Abstract
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Chen and Klahr (1999) source
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesA conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“These results challenge predictions derived from the presumed superiority of discovery approaches in teaching young children basic procedures for early scientific investigations.”
§ The Equivalence of Learning Paths in Early Science Instruction Effects of Direct Instruction and Discovery Learning > Abstract
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passes
- It may state two separate claims as one. 6
- Probably not a substantial claim. 9
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“CVS scores for direct-instruction children increased dramatically from exploration to assessment: from 1.0 to 3.1, t(51) 5 10.5, p < .0001,d 5 1.73 (see Fig. 3).Scores for children in the discovery condition also increased, but much less: from 0.6 to 1.5, t(51) 5 5.3, p < .0001,d 5 0.725.”
§ The Equivalence of Learning Paths in Early Science Instruction Effects of Direct Instruction and Discovery Learning > Day 1: CVS Exploration and Assessment
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The grand poster scores of the two groups who failed to master CVS were also indis-tinguishable, but significantly lower than the scores of the three high-CVS-score groups.”
§ The Equivalence of Learning Paths in Early Science Instruction Effects of Direct Instruction and Discovery Learning > Day 2: Poster Evaluations
Load-bearingStrength:plain· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“Finally, most developmental and cognitive theories predict that many of the phenomena associated with discovery learning would make it a relatively ineffective instructional method (Mayer, 2004).”
§ The Equivalence of Learning Paths in Early Science Instruction Effects of Direct Instruction and Discovery Learning > Abstract
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Mayer, 2004 source
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim.
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“Empirical challenges come from studies demonstrating that teacher-centered methods using direct instruction are highly effective (cf.Brophy & Good, 1986;Rosenshine & Stevens, 1986), particularly for teaching multistep procedures that students are unlikely to discover on their own, such as those involved in geometry, algebra, and computer programming (Anderson, Corbett, Koedinger, & Pelletier, 1995”
§ The Equivalence of Learning Paths in Early Science Instruction Effects of Direct Instruction and Discovery Learning > Abstract
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites Brophy & Good, 1986
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
- Not matchedcites Rosenshine & Stevens, 1986
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Anderson, Corbett, Koedinger, & Pelletier, 1995 source
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim.
- Not matched
None of the sources cited for this claim could be matched to a paper in Crossref, so there is nothing to check it against.
In the paper
“CVS mastery is considered a central instructional objective from a wide variety of educational perspectives (DeBoer, 1991;Duschl, 1990;Murnane & Raizen, 1988;National Research Council, 1995).”
§ The Equivalence of Learning Paths in Early Science Instruction Effects of Direct Instruction and Discovery Learning > Abstract
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites DeBoer, 1991
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
- Not matchedcites Duschl, 1990
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
- Not matchedcites Murnane & Raizen, 1988
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
Strength:plain· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✗ Load-bearing: fails✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Not matched
In the paper
“For children receiving direct instruction, mean performance on CVS increased in the psychology lab from 40% correct prior to instruction to 80% correct following instruction, whereas children in the discoverylearning condition showed no significant improvement.”
§ The Equivalence of Learning Paths in Early Science Instruction Effects of Direct Instruction and Discovery Learning > Abstract
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Chen and Klahr (1999) source
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“For example, children in discovery situations are more likely than those receiving direct instruction to encounter inconsistent or misleading feedback, to make encoding errors and causal misattributions, and to experience inadequate practice and elaboration.”
§ The Equivalence of Learning Paths in Early Science Instruction Effects of Direct Instruction and Discovery Learning > Abstract
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Mayer, 2004 source
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim. It may state two separate claims as one.
What the paper did — it cites no source for this, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Children from both grades at each school were randomly assigned to either the direct-instruction condition or the discovery-learning condition.”
§ The Equivalence of Learning Paths in Early Science Instruction Effects of Direct Instruction and Discovery Learning > METHOD
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim.
What the paper did — it cites no source for this, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“During the assessment phase, the experimenter did not provide any feedback in either condition.”
§ The Equivalence of Learning Paths in Early Science Instruction Effects of Direct Instruction and Discovery Learning > METHOD
Strength:plain· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✗ Load-bearing: fails✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
What the paper did — it cites no source for this, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“It is important to note that in our operationalization, the difference between direct instruction and discovery learning does not involve a difference between ''active'' and ''passive'' learning.In both conditions, students were actively engaged in the design of their experiments and the physical manipulation of the apparatus.”
§ The Equivalence of Learning Paths in Early Science Instruction Effects of Direct Instruction and Discovery Learning > METHOD
Load-bearingStrength:plain· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
What the paper did — it cites no source for this, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“A different experimenter (blind to training condition) asked all children to evaluate two science-fair posters”
§ The Equivalence of Learning Paths in Early Science Instruction Effects of Direct Instruction and Discovery Learning > METHOD
Load-bearingStrength:plain· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim.
What the paper did — it cites no source for this, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Children's responses were transcribed from audiotape and coded independently by two coders.(There was 83% agreement between coders on what constituted a valid critique.)”
§ The Equivalence of Learning Paths in Early Science Instruction Effects of Direct Instruction and Discovery Learning > METHOD
Load-bearingStrength:plain· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim. It may state two separate claims as one.
What the paper did — it cites no source for this, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Children were assessed individually, and the order of poster presentation was counterbalanced.”
§ The Equivalence of Learning Paths in Early Science Instruction Effects of Direct Instruction and Discovery Learning > METHOD
Strength:plain· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✗ Load-bearing: fails✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
The paper relies on this without support.
The operationalized direct-instruction and discovery-learning conditions adequately represent the two instructional approaches despite the lack of a consistent definition of discovery learning.
“However, at the outset, we faced a difficult definitional problem because nearly 100 years of research (cf.Winch, 1913) had yet to produce a consistent definition of discovery learning.foot_0Therefore, we intentionally magnified the difference between the two instructional treatments in order to provide a strong test of the pathindependent transfer hypothesis.”
The paper relies on this without support.
The two science-fair posters used in the transfer task are highly imperfect and thus afford wide-ranging evaluations.
“An important feature of these posters is that they described highly imperfect experiments, thus affording opportunities for wide-ranging evaluations.”
Claims other papers make about this one
Each is checked against this paper’s own text: does it say what the citing paper says it does?
The source backs part of the claim, not all of it — or backs it for a different population, condition or comparison.
In the citing paper
“Discovery learning approaches typically do not have positive academic outcomes when compared with more traditional direct instruction (Klahr, 2004; Mayer, 2004).”
From Montessori education's impact on academic and nonacademic outcomes: A systematic review (2023) · cites this paper as Klahr, 2004
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredThe source backs part of the claim, not all of it — or backs it for a different population, condition or comparison.
In the citing paper
“The work of Klahr and Nigam (2004), discussed earlier, unambiguously demonstrated the advantages of direct instruction in science.”
From Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work: An Analysis of the Failure of Constructivist, Discovery, Problem-Based, Experiential, and Inquiry-Based Teaching (2006) · cites this paper as Klahr & Nigam, 2004
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredThe cited source says what the claim attributes to it.
In the citing paper
“Direct instruction involving considerable guidance, including examples, resulted in vastly more learning than discovery.”
From Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work: An Analysis of the Failure of Constructivist, Discovery, Problem-Based, Experiential, and Inquiry-Based Teaching (2006) · cites this paper as Klahr & Nigam, 2004
The cited source says what the claim attributes to it.
In the citing paper
“Those relatively few students who learned via discovery showed no signs of superior quality of learning.”
From Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work: An Analysis of the Failure of Constructivist, Discovery, Problem-Based, Experiential, and Inquiry-Based Teaching (2006) · cites this paper as Klahr & Nigam, 2004
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“Proponents of direct instruction continue to epitomize discovery learning or pure problem solving as the constructivist ideal (e.g., Kirschner et al., 2006; Klahr & Nigam, 2004).”
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Granger, E. M., Bevis, T. H., Saka, Y., et al. (2012) · Science · doi:10.1126/science.1223709 · Cited by 91
Munter, C., Stein, M. K., & Smith, M. S. (2015) · Teachers College Record The Voice of Scholarship in Education · doi:10.1177/016146811511701102 · Cited by 95
“…Nystrand & Gamoran, 1997; Schoenfeld, 2002; Senk & Thompson, 2003) and direct (Clark, Kirschner, & Sweller, 2012; Izumi & Coburn, 2001; Kirschner, Sweller, & Clark, 2006; Klahr & Nigam, 2004; Mayer, 2004) models of instruction as the clear winner in journals and books in education and psychology.”
BackgroundDiscovery Learning—Jerome Bruner
Yılmaz, Y. Ö., & Bilican, K. (2020) · Springer texts in education · doi:10.1007/978-3-030-43620-9_13 · Cited by 87
There is an Evidence Crisis in Science Educational Policy
Lin, Z., Kirschner, P. A., Cobern, W. W., & Sweller, J. (2021) · Educational Psychology Review · doi:10.1007/s10648-021-09646-1 · Cited by 88
“…these studies supported the suggestion that students demonstrated greater learning of the content from the various forms of explicit instruction (Ashman et al., 2020; Hsu et al., 2015; Klahr & Nigam, 2004; Matlen & Klahr, 2013; Renken & Nunez, 2010; Stull & Mayer, 2007; Zhang, 2018, 2019).”
BackgroundResultThe Emergence of Scientific Reasoning
Bradley, J. F., Croker, S. J., M, A. P. M. S., & Zimmerm, C. (2012) · InTech eBooks · doi:10.5772/53885 · Cited by 90
Investigations of a complex, realistic task: Intentional, unsystematic, and exhaustive experimenters
McElhaney, K. W., & Linn, M. C. (2011) · Journal of Research in Science Teaching · doi:10.1002/tea.20423 · Cited by 88
“Many classroom studies that promote mastery of the ‘‘control-of-variables strategy’’ in science classrooms (Chen & Klahr, 1999; Dean & Kuhn, 2007; Klahr & Nigam, 2004) make domain knowledge essentially irrelevant to the investigations.”
BackgroundRoll, I., Butler, D., Yee, N., Welsh, A., Perez, S., Briseno, A., Perkins, K., & Bonn, D. (2018) · Instructional Science · doi:10.1007/s11251-017-9437-x · Cited by 86
Learning English through actions: a study of mobile-assisted language learning
Liu, P., & Chen, C.-J. (2014) · Interactive Learning Environments · doi:10.1080/10494820.2014.959976 · Cited by 86
Making play work for education
Weisberg, D. S., Kittredge, A. K., Hirsh‐Pasek, K., Golinkoff, R. M., & Klahr, D. (2015) · Phi Delta Kappan · doi:10.1177/0031721715583955 · Cited by 108
Self-citationAsking the right questions about the psychology of human inquiry: Nine open challenges
Coenen, A., Nelson, J. D., & Gureckis, T. M. (2018) · Psychonomic Bulletin & Review · doi:10.3758/s13423-018-1470-5 · Cited by 84
Saab, N., van Joolingen, W., & van Hout‐Wolters, B. H. A. M. (2011) · Metacognition and Learning · doi:10.1007/s11409-011-9068-6 · Cited by 86
“Additional support and guidance for inexperienced learners is needed (Klahr and Nigam 2004; Mayer 2004).”
BackgroundHow to sequence video modeling examples and inquiry tasks to foster scientific reasoning
Kant, J. M., Scheiter, K., & Oschatz, K. (2017) · Learning and Instruction · doi:10.1016/j.learninstruc.2017.04.005 · Cited by 94
Likourezos, V., & Kalyuga, S. (2016) · Instructional Science · doi:10.1007/s11251-016-9399-4 · Cited by 98
Akuma, F. V., & Callaghan, R. (2018) · Journal of Research in Science Teaching · doi:10.1002/tea.21516 · Cited by 84
The role of guidance in children's discovery learning
Honomichl, R. D., & Chen, Z. (2012) · Wiley Interdisciplinary Reviews Cognitive Science · doi:10.1002/wcs.1199 · Cited by 87
Schmidt, H. G., Cohen‐Schotanus, J., van der Molen, H. T., Splinter, T. A. W., Bulte, J. A., Holdrinet, R. S. G., & van Rossum, H. J. M. (2009) · Higher Education · doi:10.1007/s10734-009-9300-3 · Cited by 81
“This belief is by no means restricted to teachers or governments, as witnessed by recent attacks in the scientific literature on those who are seen to promote active learning (e.g., Kirschner et al. 2006; Klahr and Nigam 2004; Mayer 2004).”
BackgroundCraig, S. D., Michelene, T. H., & VanLehn, K. A. (2009) · Journal of Educational Psychology · doi:10.1037/a0016601 · Cited by 87
Guidance in inquiry-based instruction – an attempt to disentangle a manifold construct
Vorholzer, A., & von Aufschnaiter, C. (2019) · International Journal of Science Education · doi:10.1080/09500693.2019.1616124 · Cited by 80
“In contrast, Klahr and Nigam (2004) combined implicit guidance with instruction that may be considered as offering a rather high degree of autonomy (see discussion in Blanchard et al., 2010) and found a relatively small effect on students’ achievement of procedural goals.”
BackgroundAusubel’s meaningful learning re-visited
Bryce, T. G. K., & Blown, E. J. (2024) · Current Psychology · doi:10.1007/s12144-023-04440-4 · Cited by 84
Varma, K., & Linn, M. C. (2011) · Journal of Science Education and Technology · doi:10.1007/s10956-011-9337-9 · Cited by 79
Bılgın, İ. (2009) · Scientific Research and Essays · doi:10.5897/sre.9000908 · Cited by 77
Smolkowski, K., & Gunn, B. (2011) · Early Childhood Research Quarterly · doi:10.1016/j.ecresq.2011.09.004 · Cited by 81
Designing to develop disciplinary dispositions: Modeling natural systems.
Lehrer, R. (2009) · American Psychologist · doi:10.1037/0003-066x.64.8.759 · Cited by 76
Feng, M., Heffernan, N. T., & Koedinger, K. R. (2006) · Lecture notes in computer science · doi:10.1007/11774303_4 · Cited by 77
Shunned and Admired: Montessori, Self-Determination, and a Case for Radical School Reform
Lillard, A. S. (2019) · Educational Psychology Review · doi:10.1007/s10648-019-09483-3 · Cited by 75
“Order might explain the discrepancy between poor outcomes from pure Bdiscovery learning^ approaches (Klahr and Nigam 2004; Mayer 2004) and better outcomes from Bguided play^ approaches (Alfieri et al.”
BackgroundInfluence of 3D models and animations on students in natural subjects
Teplá, M., Teplý, P., & Šmejkal, P. (2022) · International Journal of STEM Education · doi:10.1186/s40594-022-00382-8 · Cited by 152
“…to identify the best approach to increase students’ internal motivation for science subjects, because students who are more interested in natural sciences are also more motivated to study these subjects (Berg et al., 2003; Klahr & Nigam, 2004) and to understand them (Khishfe & AbdEl-Khalick, 2002).”
BackgroundContextual assessment in science education: Background, issues, and policy
Klassen, S. (2006) · Science Education · doi:10.1002/sce.20150 · Cited by 73
Preschoolers perform more informative experiments after observing theory-violating evidence
van Schijndel, T. J. P., Visser, I., van Bers, B. M. C. W., & Raijmakers, M. E. J. (2014) · Journal of Experimental Child Psychology · doi:10.1016/j.jecp.2014.11.008 · Cited by 70
Causal learning is collaborative: Examining explanation and exploration in social contexts
Legare, C. H., Sobel, D. M., & Callanan, M. A. (2017) · Psychonomic Bulletin & Review · doi:10.3758/s13423-017-1351-3 · Cited by 76
Garber, J., Frankel, S. A., & Herrington, C. G. (2016) · Annual Review of Clinical Psychology · doi:10.1146/annurev-clinpsy-032814-112836 · Cited by 72
“For example, the control-of-variables strategy (Inhelder & Piaget 1958) can be taught effectively, although use of this strategy does not necessarily generalize to other contexts following these interventions (Chen & Klahr 1999; Klahr & Nigam 2004).”
BackgroundInquiry-Oriented Instruction in Science: Who Teaches That Way?
Smith, T. M., Desimone, L. M., Zeidner, T., Dunn, A. C., Bhatt, M., & Rumyantseva, N. L. (2007) · Educational Evaluation and Policy Analysis · doi:10.3102/0162373707306025 · Cited by 74
“Furthermore, other studies suggest that too much inquiry or “discovery learning” (e.g., no teacher intervention beyond the suggestion of a learning objective) can be less effective than direct or teacher-centered instruction (Klahr & Nigam, 2004).”
BackgroundChi, S., Liu, X., Wang, Z., & Han, S. W. (2018) · International Journal of Science Education · doi:10.1080/09500693.2018.1476742 · Cited by 71
Exploring the Classroom: Teaching Science in Early Childhood*
Dejonckheere, P., de Wit, N., Keere, K. V. D., & Vervaet, S. (2016) · European Journal of Educational Research · doi:10.12973/eu-jer.5.3.149 · Cited by 71
Fries, L., Son, J. Y., Givvin, K. B., & Stigler, J. W. (2020) · Educational Psychology Review · doi:10.1007/s10648-020-09561-x · Cited by 98
“At every age level, guided discovery is more effective than simple discovery learning (e.g., Alfieri et al. 2011; Klahr and Nigam 2004; Weisberg et al. 2015).”
BackgroundDo individual differences in children’s curiosity relate to their inquiry-based learning?
van Schijndel, T. J. P., Jansen, B. R. J., & Raijmakers, M. E. J. (2018) · International Journal of Science Education · doi:10.1080/09500693.2018.1460772 · Cited by 68
Yu, Y., Landrum, A. R., Bonawitz, E. B., & Shafto, P. (2018) · Developmental Science · doi:10.1111/desc.12696 · Cited by 67
Finding One’s Place in Transfer Space
Klahr, D., & Chen, Z. (2011) · Child Development Perspectives · doi:10.1111/j.1750-8606.2011.00171.x · Cited by 69
“…1998), tool use and causal reasoning (Brown & Kane, 1988; Chen, Sanchez, & Campbell, 1997; Chen & Siegler, 2000), scientific reasoning strategies (Klahr & Nigam, 2004; Kuhn, Schauble, & GarciaMila, 1992; Schauble, 1990, 1996), computer programming (Klahr & Carver, 1988), analogical mapping…”
Self-citationContextualization in Perspective
Son, J. Y., & Goldstone, R. L. (2008) · Cognition and Instruction · doi:10.1080/07370000802584539 · Cited by 76
Children’s use of interventions to learn causal structure
McCormack, T., Bramley, N. R., Frosch, C. A., Patrick, F., & Lagnado, D. A. (2015) · Journal of Experimental Child Psychology · doi:10.1016/j.jecp.2015.06.017 · Cited by 64
Gijlers, H., Saab, N., van Joolingen, W., de Jong, T., & van Hout‐Wolters, B. H. A. M. (2009) · Journal of Computer Assisted Learning · doi:10.1111/j.1365-2729.2008.00302.x · Cited by 68
“Research indicates that pure inquiry is not always successful and does not always lead to learning (Klahr & Nigam 2004; Mayer 2004).”
BackgroundComputer-based learning of neuroanatomy: A longitudinal study of learning, transfer, and retention.
Chariker, J. H., Naaz, F., & Pani, J. R. (2011) · Journal of Educational Psychology · doi:10.1037/a0021680 · Cited by 66
Zhou, S., Han, J. L., Koenig, K. M., Raplinger, A., Pi, Y., Li, D., Xiao, H., Fu, Z., & Bao, L. (2015) · Thinking Skills and Creativity · doi:10.1016/j.tsc.2015.11.004 · Cited by 66
“Effects of experimental data on student performance and reasoning Identifying or designing a simple COV experiment is a basic skill that young students have been shown to have learned (Chen & Klahr, 1999; Dean & Kuhn, 2007; Klahr & Nigam, 2004).”
BackgroundWeaver, J. P., Chastain, R. J., DeCaro, D. A., & DeCaro, M. S. (2017) · Contemporary Educational Psychology · doi:10.1016/j.cedpsych.2017.12.003 · Cited by 76
“…too difficult for students (e.g., DeCaro, DeCaro, & Rittle-Johnson, 2015; Kirschner et al., 2006) and that more traditional direct instruction methods may yield better learning outcomes in some cases (cf. Kirschner et al., 2006; Klahr & Nigam, 2004; Mayer, 2004; Sweller, Kirschner, & Clark, 2007).”
BackgroundIs Inquiry-Based Science Teaching Worth the Effort?
Zhang, L. (2016) · Science & Education · doi:10.1007/s11191-016-9856-0 · Cited by 77
Orchestrating Inquiry Learning
(2012) · Routledge eBooks · doi:10.4324/9780203136195 · Cited by 65
Current Topics in Children's Learning and Cognition
Kloos, H., Morris, B. J., & Amaral, J. L. (2012) · InTech eBooks · doi:10.5772/1162 · Cited by 64
Lipowsky, F. (2014) · Springer-Lehrbuch · doi:10.1007/978-3-642-41291-2_4 · Cited by 75
Heal, N. A., Hanley, G. P., & Layer, S. A. (2009) · Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis · doi:10.1901/jaba.2009.42-123 · Cited by 63
“The teacher’s primary role is to arrange the environment to promote independent interactions with the materials and expose the child to the learning objectives through intermittent commenting and acknowledgment when a child is successful ( Klahr & Nigam, 2004; Solter & Mayer, 1978).”
BackgroundA cross-disciplinary approach to teaching data literacy and proportionality
Vahey, P., Rafanan, K., Patton, C. M., et al. (2012) · Educational Studies in Mathematics · doi:10.1007/s10649-012-9392-z · Cited by 62
Working Memory, Motivation, and Teacher-Initiated Learning
Brooks, D. W., & Shell, D. F. (2006) · Journal of Science Education and Technology · doi:10.1007/s10956-006-0353-0 · Cited by 68
“Klahr and Nigam (2004) compare direct and discovery methods in early science learning, and find that “many more children learned from direct instruction than from discovery learning, but also that when asked to make broader, richer scientific judgments the (many) children who learned about experimental design from dir…”
BackgroundEffective Training for Millennial Students
Werth, E. P., & Werth, L. (2011) · Adult Learning · doi:10.1177/104515951102200302 · Cited by 62
“…modification, the view that change is being mandated administratively, instructor inability to give up control of content presentation, and the presence of some reports claiming to show that these "new" teaching techniques are no better than direct instruction ( Klahr and Nigam, 2004; Port, 1999).”
BackgroundSweller, J. (2007) · UNSWorks (UNSW Sydney) · doi:10.4324/9780203880869.ch31 · Cited by 72
“That ignorance is being rectified and increasing numbers of investigators are reacting against the previous orthodoxy (Kirschner et al., 2006; Klahr and Nigam, 2004; Mayer, 2004).”
BackgroundIs Inquiry Science Instruction Effective for English Language Learners? A Meta-Analytic Review
Estrella, G., Au, J., Jaeggi, S. M., & Collins, P. (2018) · AERA Open · doi:10.1177/2332858418767402 · Cited by 70
“Finally, the benefits of inquiry instruction may be limited to students who already have sufficient prior knowledge to support exploratory learning (Kirschner et al., 2006; Klahr & Nigam, 2004).”
BackgroundGuided Play: A Solution to the Play Versus Learning Dichotomy
Toub, T. S., Rajan, V., Golinkoff, R. M., & Hirsh‐Pasek, K. (2016) · Evolutionary psychology · doi:10.1007/978-3-319-29986-0_5 · Cited by 68
Putting the Education Back in Educational Apps: How Content and Context Interact to Promote Learning
Zosh, J. M., Lytle, S. R., Golinkoff, R. M., & Hirsh‐Pasek, K. (2016) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-3-319-45102-2_17 · Cited by 64
“At the other end of the spectrum lies proponents of direct instruction in which adults or other more knowledgeable individuals (e.g., teachers or parents) tell children what they need to know (Klahr & Nigam, 2004 ).”
BackgroundBöttcher, F., & Meisert, A. (2011) · Research in Science Education · doi:10.1007/s11165-011-9271-0 · Cited by 73
The influence of domain knowledge on strategy use during simulation-based inquiry learning
Lazonder, A. W., Wilhelm, P., & Hagemans, M. G. (2008) · Learning and Instruction · doi:10.1016/j.learninstruc.2007.12.001 · Cited by 60
Saido, G. M., Siraj, S., DeWitt, D., et al. (2018) · International Journal of Science Education · doi:10.1080/09500693.2018.1452307 · Cited by 60
“Children who learned in discovery learning environments made better scientific judgements than when learning with direct instruction (Klahr & Nigam, 2004), In addition, it increased students’ success and inquiry learning skills more than the traditional method of teaching (Balım, 2009).”
BackgroundBumbacher, E., Salehi, S., Wieman, C., & Blikstein, P. (2018) · Journal of Science Education and Technology · doi:10.1007/s10956-017-9719-8 · Cited by 59
Areepattamannil, S., Cairns, D., & Dickson, M. (2020) · Journal of Science Teacher Education · doi:10.1080/1046560x.2020.1753309 · Cited by 59
“Klahr and Nigam (2004) showed that not only was teacher-directed instruction more effective for teaching inquiry process skills (in this case, the controlling of variables in experiments) but also students that experienced teacher-directed instruction were equally as proficient at transferring this…”
BackgroundResultInfluentialMaking space for children’s agency with playful learning
Baker, S. T., Courtois, S. L., & Eberhart, J. (2021) · International Journal of Early Years Education · doi:10.1080/09669760.2021.1997726 · Cited by 84
“There are also some studies showing more directive, teacher-led approaches lead to better learning than playful, learner-led approaches [e.g. of reasoning strategies (Klahr and Nigam 2004)].”
ResultMulder, Y. G., Lazonder, A. W., & de Jong, T. (2011) · Learning and Instruction · doi:10.1016/j.learninstruc.2011.01.003 · Cited by 58
The Development of Experimentation and Evidence Evaluation Skills at Preschool Age
Piekny, J., Grube, D., & Maehler, C. (2013) · International Journal of Science Education · doi:10.1080/09500693.2013.776192 · Cited by 58
“Moreover, with the help of Experimentation and Evidence Evaluation 335 instructions, elementary school children seem to be able to learn how to manipulate a specific variable while keeping all other variables constant (Klahr & Nigam, 2004; Strand-Cary & Klahr, 2008).”
MethodHomer, B. D., & Plass, J. L. (2014) · Computers in Human Behavior · doi:10.1016/j.chb.2014.03.041 · Cited by 60
“The considerable criticism of highly interactive exploratory educational approaches has to a large extent originated from researchers with a cognitive load theory (Sweller, 1999) orientation (e.g., Handelsman et al., 2004; Kirschner et al., 2006; Klahr & Nigam, 2004).”
BackgroundFord, M. J. (2005) · Journal of the Learning Sciences · doi:10.1207/s15327809jls1404_1 · Cited by 57
“This design, developed and extensively documented by Klahr and others (Chen & Klahr, 1999; Klahr, Chen, & Toth, 2001; Klahr & Nigam, 2004; Toth, Klahr, & Chen, 2000), isolates the abstract logic of CVS from potentially distracting elements of context.”
MethodFyfe, E. R., DeCaro, M. S., & Rittle‐Johnson, B. (2014) · British Journal of Educational Psychology · doi:10.1111/bjep.12035 · Cited by 69
Metadata
- Authors
- Klahr, D., & Nigam, M.
- Affiliations
- Carnegie Mellon University (US)
- University of Pittsburgh (US)
- Venue
- Psychological Science
- Publisher
- SAGE Publications
- Published
- 2004-10
- Volume
- 15
- Issue
- 10
- Pages
- 661-667
- ISSN
- 0956-7976 (ISSN-L)
- 1467-9280
- OpenAlex
- W2139559367
- Cited by
- 977
- References
- 35
- Citations by year
- 2026: 28 · 2025: 31 · 2024: 39 · 2023: 36 · 2022: 41 · 2021: 59 · 2020: 59 · 2019: 45 · 2018: 63 · 2017: 53 · 2016: 64 · 2015: 49 · 2014: 49 · 2013: 50 · 2012: 69
- FWCI
- 115.71
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- green
- doi.org
- Locations
- Psychological Science (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- Figshare (submittedVersion)
- KiltHub Repository
- Funders
- Eunice Kennedy Shriver National Institute of Child Health and Human Development (R01HD025211)
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Education › Science Education and Pedagogy
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Experimental and Cognitive Psychology › Visual and Cognitive Learning Processes
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Developmental and Educational Psychology › Innovative Teaching and Learning Methods
- Keywords
- discovery learning, direct instruction, early childhood science education, elementary school students, experimental design, transfer of learning, scientific reasoning, learning trajectories, teaching effectiveness
- MeSH terms
- Achievement, Child, Female, Humans, Learning, Male, Science, Teaching
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