The DOI matches its Crossref record; 33 of the 35 references it cites were found in a registry or an index; 1 of the 14 sources its claims cite were checked for support.
The Equivalence of Learning Paths in Early Science Instruction: Effects of Direct Instruction and Discovery Learning
Open accessAbstract
In a study with 112 third- and fourth-grade children, we measured the relative effectiveness of discovery learning and direct instruction at two points in the learning process: (a) during the initial acquisition of the basic cognitive objective (a procedure for designing and interpreting simple, unconfounded experiments) and (b) during the subsequent transfer and application of this basic skill to more diffuse and authentic reasoning associated with the evaluation of science-fair posters. We found not only that many more children learned from direct instruction than from discovery learning, but also that when asked to make broader, richer scientific judgments, the many children who learned about experimental design from direct instruction performed as well as those few children who discovered the method on their own. These results challenge predictions derived from the presumed superiority of discovery approaches in teaching young children basic procedures for early scientific investigations.
Overview
Integrity signals
Registry
Cites
Statistics
Verification
Claims the paper makes
1 of 14 cited sources checked · 0 supported · 0 flagged · accuracy not yet measured
The cited sources support only part of this claim — read each source’s verdict below.
In the paper
“When the direct-instruction procedure was adapted from an experimental script to a lesson plan implemented in a classroom setting, mean CVS performance increased from 30% prior to instruction to 96% following instruction (Toth, Klahr, & Chen, 2000).”
§ The Equivalence of Learning Paths in Early Science Instruction Effects of Direct Instruction and Discovery Learning > Abstract
What the sources say
- Partly supportedcites Toth, Klahr, & Chen, 2000 sourceExperimental — accuracy not yet measured
The CVS Performance section reports that mean performance in individual interviews increased from 30% before instruction to 97% after instruction, not 96%. The classroom-worksheet analysis also reports 97% after instruction, but its preinstruction figure is 58%. (LLM, conf=0.90)
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passes- Partly supported
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The results, shown in Table 2, replicated the pattern for the grand poster score: Experts and masters outperformed nonmasters, regardless of the learning paths.”
§ The Equivalence of Learning Paths in Early Science Instruction Effects of Direct Instruction and Discovery Learning > Day 2: Poster Evaluations
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesA result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Table 2 shows that experts, discovery masters, and direct-instruction masters had higher grand poster scores than discovery nonmasters and direct-instruction nonmasters, d 5 0.83.”
§ The Equivalence of Learning Paths in Early Science Instruction Effects of Direct Instruction and Discovery Learning > Day 2: Poster Evaluations
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesA result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Forty of the 52 direct-instruction children (77%) became masters, whereas only 12 of the 52 discovery children (23%) did so, w 2 (1, N 5 104) 5 28.0, p < .0001(with Yates correction).”
§ The Equivalence of Learning Paths in Early Science Instruction Effects of Direct Instruction and Discovery Learning > Day 1: CVS Exploration and Assessment
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesA result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Moreover, there were no statistical differences among the grand poster scores for experts, discovery masters, and direct-instruction masters.”
§ The Equivalence of Learning Paths in Early Science Instruction Effects of Direct Instruction and Discovery Learning > Day 2: Poster Evaluations
Load-bearingStrength:plain· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesA result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“We found not only that many more children learned from direct instruction than from discovery learning, but also that when asked to make broader, richer scientific judgments, the many children who learned about experimental design from direct instruction performed as well as those few children who discovered the method on their own.”
- Also stated in: § Day 1: CVS Exploration and Assessment · plain
“direct instruction produced many more masters than did discovery learning.”
- Also stated in: § DISCUSSION · boosted
“these results replicate other studies in which direct instruction was clearly superior to discovery learning in facilitating children's acquisition of CVS”
§ The Equivalence of Learning Paths in Early Science Instruction Effects of Direct Instruction and Discovery Learning > Abstract
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passes- Also stated in: § Day 1: CVS Exploration and Assessment · plain
In the paper
“Chen and Klahr (1999) demonstrated that direct instruction on CVS led to statistically and educationally significant improvement in children's ability to design simple, unconfounded experiments.”
§ The Equivalence of Learning Paths in Early Science Instruction Effects of Direct Instruction and Discovery Learning > Abstract
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Chen and Klahr (1999) source
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesA conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Children who became masters via direct instruction were as skilled at evaluating science-fair posters as were discovery-learning masters and experts.”
- Also stated in: § Day 2: Poster Evaluations · plain
“In other words, the grand poster scores of the three groups that achieved high levels of CVS performance via different paths were indistinguishable.”
§ The Equivalence of Learning Paths in Early Science Instruction Effects of Direct Instruction and Discovery Learning > DISCUSSION
Load-bearingStrength:plain· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passes- Rests on an assumption: The two science-fair posters used in the transfer task are highly imperfect and thus afford wide-ranging evaluations.
- Also stated in: § Day 2: Poster Evaluations · plain
In the paper
“Moreover, students receiving direct instruction were superior to control students on a far-transfer test of experimental design administered 7 months later.”
§ The Equivalence of Learning Paths in Early Science Instruction Effects of Direct Instruction and Discovery Learning > Abstract
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Chen and Klahr (1999) source
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesA conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“These results challenge predictions derived from the presumed superiority of discovery approaches in teaching young children basic procedures for early scientific investigations.”
§ The Equivalence of Learning Paths in Early Science Instruction Effects of Direct Instruction and Discovery Learning > Abstract
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passes
- It may state two separate claims as one. 6
- Probably not a substantial claim. 9
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“CVS scores for direct-instruction children increased dramatically from exploration to assessment: from 1.0 to 3.1, t(51) 5 10.5, p < .0001,d 5 1.73 (see Fig. 3).Scores for children in the discovery condition also increased, but much less: from 0.6 to 1.5, t(51) 5 5.3, p < .0001,d 5 0.725.”
§ The Equivalence of Learning Paths in Early Science Instruction Effects of Direct Instruction and Discovery Learning > Day 1: CVS Exploration and Assessment
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The grand poster scores of the two groups who failed to master CVS were also indis-tinguishable, but significantly lower than the scores of the three high-CVS-score groups.”
§ The Equivalence of Learning Paths in Early Science Instruction Effects of Direct Instruction and Discovery Learning > Day 2: Poster Evaluations
Load-bearingStrength:plain· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“Finally, most developmental and cognitive theories predict that many of the phenomena associated with discovery learning would make it a relatively ineffective instructional method (Mayer, 2004).”
§ The Equivalence of Learning Paths in Early Science Instruction Effects of Direct Instruction and Discovery Learning > Abstract
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Mayer, 2004 source
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim.
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“Empirical challenges come from studies demonstrating that teacher-centered methods using direct instruction are highly effective (cf.Brophy & Good, 1986;Rosenshine & Stevens, 1986), particularly for teaching multistep procedures that students are unlikely to discover on their own, such as those involved in geometry, algebra, and computer programming (Anderson, Corbett, Koedinger, & Pelletier, 1995”
§ The Equivalence of Learning Paths in Early Science Instruction Effects of Direct Instruction and Discovery Learning > Abstract
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites Brophy & Good, 1986
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
- Not matchedcites Rosenshine & Stevens, 1986
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Anderson, Corbett, Koedinger, & Pelletier, 1995 source
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim.
- Not matched
None of the sources cited for this claim could be matched to a paper in Crossref, so there is nothing to check it against.
In the paper
“CVS mastery is considered a central instructional objective from a wide variety of educational perspectives (DeBoer, 1991;Duschl, 1990;Murnane & Raizen, 1988;National Research Council, 1995).”
§ The Equivalence of Learning Paths in Early Science Instruction Effects of Direct Instruction and Discovery Learning > Abstract
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites DeBoer, 1991
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
- Not matchedcites Duschl, 1990
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
- Not matchedcites Murnane & Raizen, 1988
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
Strength:plain· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✗ Load-bearing: fails✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Not matched
In the paper
“For children receiving direct instruction, mean performance on CVS increased in the psychology lab from 40% correct prior to instruction to 80% correct following instruction, whereas children in the discoverylearning condition showed no significant improvement.”
§ The Equivalence of Learning Paths in Early Science Instruction Effects of Direct Instruction and Discovery Learning > Abstract
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Chen and Klahr (1999) source
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“For example, children in discovery situations are more likely than those receiving direct instruction to encounter inconsistent or misleading feedback, to make encoding errors and causal misattributions, and to experience inadequate practice and elaboration.”
§ The Equivalence of Learning Paths in Early Science Instruction Effects of Direct Instruction and Discovery Learning > Abstract
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Mayer, 2004 source
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim. It may state two separate claims as one.
What the paper did — it cites no source for this, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Children from both grades at each school were randomly assigned to either the direct-instruction condition or the discovery-learning condition.”
§ The Equivalence of Learning Paths in Early Science Instruction Effects of Direct Instruction and Discovery Learning > METHOD
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim.
What the paper did — it cites no source for this, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“During the assessment phase, the experimenter did not provide any feedback in either condition.”
§ The Equivalence of Learning Paths in Early Science Instruction Effects of Direct Instruction and Discovery Learning > METHOD
Strength:plain· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✗ Load-bearing: fails✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
What the paper did — it cites no source for this, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“It is important to note that in our operationalization, the difference between direct instruction and discovery learning does not involve a difference between ''active'' and ''passive'' learning.In both conditions, students were actively engaged in the design of their experiments and the physical manipulation of the apparatus.”
§ The Equivalence of Learning Paths in Early Science Instruction Effects of Direct Instruction and Discovery Learning > METHOD
Load-bearingStrength:plain· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
What the paper did — it cites no source for this, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“A different experimenter (blind to training condition) asked all children to evaluate two science-fair posters”
§ The Equivalence of Learning Paths in Early Science Instruction Effects of Direct Instruction and Discovery Learning > METHOD
Load-bearingStrength:plain· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim.
What the paper did — it cites no source for this, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Children's responses were transcribed from audiotape and coded independently by two coders.(There was 83% agreement between coders on what constituted a valid critique.)”
§ The Equivalence of Learning Paths in Early Science Instruction Effects of Direct Instruction and Discovery Learning > METHOD
Load-bearingStrength:plain· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim. It may state two separate claims as one.
What the paper did — it cites no source for this, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Children were assessed individually, and the order of poster presentation was counterbalanced.”
§ The Equivalence of Learning Paths in Early Science Instruction Effects of Direct Instruction and Discovery Learning > METHOD
Strength:plain· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✗ Load-bearing: fails✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
The paper relies on this without support.
The operationalized direct-instruction and discovery-learning conditions adequately represent the two instructional approaches despite the lack of a consistent definition of discovery learning.
“However, at the outset, we faced a difficult definitional problem because nearly 100 years of research (cf.Winch, 1913) had yet to produce a consistent definition of discovery learning.foot_0Therefore, we intentionally magnified the difference between the two instructional treatments in order to provide a strong test of the pathindependent transfer hypothesis.”
The paper relies on this without support.
The two science-fair posters used in the transfer task are highly imperfect and thus afford wide-ranging evaluations.
“An important feature of these posters is that they described highly imperfect experiments, thus affording opportunities for wide-ranging evaluations.”
Claims other papers make about this one
Each is checked against this paper’s own text: does it say what the citing paper says it does?
The source backs part of the claim, not all of it — or backs it for a different population, condition or comparison.
In the citing paper
“Discovery learning approaches typically do not have positive academic outcomes when compared with more traditional direct instruction (Klahr, 2004; Mayer, 2004).”
From Montessori education's impact on academic and nonacademic outcomes: A systematic review (2023) · cites this paper as Klahr, 2004
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredThe source backs part of the claim, not all of it — or backs it for a different population, condition or comparison.
In the citing paper
“The work of Klahr and Nigam (2004), discussed earlier, unambiguously demonstrated the advantages of direct instruction in science.”
From Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work: An Analysis of the Failure of Constructivist, Discovery, Problem-Based, Experiential, and Inquiry-Based Teaching (2006) · cites this paper as Klahr & Nigam, 2004
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredThe cited source says what the claim attributes to it.
In the citing paper
“Direct instruction involving considerable guidance, including examples, resulted in vastly more learning than discovery.”
From Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work: An Analysis of the Failure of Constructivist, Discovery, Problem-Based, Experiential, and Inquiry-Based Teaching (2006) · cites this paper as Klahr & Nigam, 2004
The cited source says what the claim attributes to it.
In the citing paper
“Those relatively few students who learned via discovery showed no signs of superior quality of learning.”
From Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work: An Analysis of the Failure of Constructivist, Discovery, Problem-Based, Experiential, and Inquiry-Based Teaching (2006) · cites this paper as Klahr & Nigam, 2004
Citations
Cites
Handbook of research on teaching
Wittrock, M. C. (1986) · Bibliothèque et Archives nationales du Québec (Québec government) · Cited by 10,630
National Science Education Standards
Shea, J. H. (1995) · Journal of Geological Education · doi:10.5408/0022-1368-43.2.102 · Cited by 7,888
Should There Be a Three-Strikes Rule Against Pure Discovery Learning?
Mayer, R. E. (2004) · American Psychologist · doi:10.1037/0003-066x.59.1.14 · Cited by 2,527
Piaget, J. (1976) · Piaget and His School · doi:10.1007/978-3-642-46323-5_2 · Cited by 2,167
Carmichael's Manual of Child Psychology
Sigel, I. E., & Mussen, P. H. (1972) · American Educational Research Journal · doi:10.2307/1161696 · Cited by 2,053
Cognitive Tutors: Lessons Learned
Anderson, J. R., Corbett, A. T., Koedinger, K. R., & Pelletier, R. (1995) · Journal of the Learning Sciences · doi:10.1207/s15327809jls0402_2 · Cited by 1,982
Emerging minds: the process of change in children's thinking
(1997) · Choice Reviews Online · doi:10.5860/choice.34-5984 · Cited by 1,132
Pairwise Multiple Comparison Procedures with Unequal N’s and/or Variances: A Monte Carlo Study
Games, P. A., & Howell, J. F. (1976) · Journal of Educational Statistics · doi:10.3102/10769986001002113 · Cited by 926
All Other Things Being Equal: Acquisition and Transfer of the Control of Variables Strategy
Chen, Z., & Klahr, D. (1999) · Child Development · doi:10.1111/1467-8624.00081 · Cited by 736
Self-citationA history of ideas in science education: implications for practice
(1991) · Choice Reviews Online · doi:10.5860/choice.29-0433 · Cited by 520
Flagged first, then by citations
2 of the 35 references couldn’t be matched to a known paper.
Research works printed but not linked: 9
- Duschl R.A., 1990, Restructuring science education
- Klahr D., 2001, Designing for science: Implications from everyday, classroom, and professional settings, 209
- Korpan C.A., 1994, Assessing scientific literacy: A taxonomy for classifying questions and knowledge about scientific research
- Loveless T., 1998, Education policy, 285
- 1995, National Research Council
- Rosenshine B., 1986, Handbook of research on teaching, 376
- 10.1002/(SICI)1098-2736(199601)33:1<101::AID-TEA6>3.0.CO;2-Z · DOI
- Winch W.A., 1913, Inductive versus deductive methods of teaching
- Zimmerman C., 1998, Alberta Journal of Educational Research, 44, 188
Cited by
Sorted by citations
Items 201–300 of 917
How Children Learn From Others: An Analysis of Selective Word Learning
Sobel, D. M., & Finiasz, Z. (2020) · Child Development · doi:10.1111/cdev.13415 · Cited by 61
The neuroscience of active learning and direct instruction
Dubinsky, J. M., & Hamid, A. (2024) · Neuroscience & Biobehavioral Reviews · doi:10.1016/j.neubiorev.2024.105737 · Cited by 121
“As with any human endeavor, the quality of instruction may vary with both pedagogies, as performance in some AL classrooms does not surpass DI (Klahr and Nigam, 2004; White et al., 2014).”
BackgroundPrescriptive Principles for Instructional Design
Merrill, M., Barclay, M., & Schaack, A. V. (2007) · doi:10.4324/9780203880869.ch14 · Cited by 56
Feldon, D. F., Timmerman, B. C., Stowe, K. A., & Showman, R. M. (2010) · Journal of Research in Science Teaching · doi:10.1002/tea.20382 · Cited by 55
“This provides learners with effective problem-solving procedures and opportunities to practice them in increasingly complex ways (e.g., Eilam, 2002; Klahr & Nigam, 2004).”
Rittle‐Johnson, B., Fyfe, E. R., & Loehr, A. M. (2016) · British Journal of Educational Psychology · doi:10.1111/bjep.12124 · Cited by 55
Cukurova, M., Bennett, J., & Abrahams, I. (2017) · Research in Science & Technological Education · doi:10.1080/02635143.2017.1336709 · Cited by 55
“Similarly, Klahr and Nigam (2004) found that many more students learned from instruction with strict guidance compared to leaving students to discover their solutions independently.”
BackgroundKruit, P., Oostdam, R., van den Berg, E., & Schuitema, J. A. (2018) · International Journal of Science Education · doi:10.1080/09500693.2018.1428777 · Cited by 66
van der Graaf, J., van de Sande, E., Gijsel, M. A. R., & Segers, E. (2019) · International Journal of Science Education · doi:10.1080/09500693.2019.1594442 · Cited by 55
“When this link is more explicitly part of the assessment, effects of direct instruction can be found (Klahr & Nigam, 2004).”
BackgroundThe visual core of science: definition and applications to education
Mathewson, J. H. (2005) · International Journal of Science Education · doi:10.1080/09500690500060417 · Cited by 54
“For example, the belief in the superiority of discovery learning over direct instruction is being challenged in the area of teaching scientific reasoning (Abd-El-Khalick, and Lederman 2000, Klahr and Nigam 2004, Mayer 2004).”
BackgroundLearning to argue via apprenticeship
Papathomas, L. N., & Kuhn, D. (2017) · Journal of Experimental Child Psychology · doi:10.1016/j.jecp.2017.01.013 · Cited by 53
INTERACTIVE SIMULATIONS IN THE TEACHING OF STATISTICS: PROMISE AND PITFALLS
Lane, D. M., & Peres, S. C. (2006) · Cited by 52
Solé-Llussà, A., Camaño, D. A., & Ibáñez, M. (2020) · Research in Science & Technological Education · doi:10.1080/02635143.2020.1786361 · Cited by 57
“…authors emphasize that science process skills should be taught to students in an explicit and scaffolded way in that it provides them with assistance as well as further opportunities for mastering these abilities with the goal of improving student success in science classes (Klahr and Nigam 2004).”
BackgroundInvention Versus Direct Instruction: For Some Content, It’s a Tie
Chase, C. C., & Klahr, D. (2017) · Journal of Science Education and Technology · doi:10.1007/s10956-017-9700-6 · Cited by 52
Self-citationSchrader, C., & Bastiaens, T. J. (2012) · The International Review of Research in Open and Distributed Learning · doi:10.19173/irrodl.v13i3.1166 · Cited by 53
“The effectiveness of this approach is supported by research in the field of cognitive load theory (e.g., Chall, 2000; Kirschner, Sweller, & Clark, 2006; Klahr & Nigam, 2004; Tuovinen & Sweller, 1999) but also by theoretical frameworks of classroom teaching (e.g., Klauer, 1985).”
MethodLazonder, A. W., & Egberink, A. (2013) · Instructional Science · doi:10.1007/s11251-013-9284-3 · Cited by 52
Key Areas of Effective Adolescent Literacy Programs
Marchand‐Martella, N. E., Martella, R. C., Modderman, S. L., Petersen, H. M., & Pan, S. (2012) · Education and Treatment of Children · doi:10.1353/etc.2013.0005 · Cited by 52
“Research almost universally supports explicit instructional practices (Archer & Hughes, 2011; Kirschner, Sweller, & Clark, 2006; Klahr & Nigam, 2004; Marchand-Martella, Slocum, & Martella, 2004).”
Prevention–Permission–Promotion: A Review of Approaches to Errors in Learning
Wong, S. S. H., & Lim, S. W. H. (2018) · Educational Psychologist · doi:10.1080/00461520.2018.1501693 · Cited by 53
“…that the exploration process is essential for learners to develop inquiry skills as active agents in constructing their knowledge (e.g., Bruner, 1961), other researchers have questioned the efficacy of unstructured exploration (e.g., Kirschner et al., 2006; Klahr & Nigam, 2004; Mayer, 2004).”
BackgroundGuo, J. (2019) · Journal of Computing in Higher Education · doi:10.1007/s12528-019-09224-z · Cited by 64
Karpov, Y. V. (2014) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/cbo9781107588318 · Cited by 51
Is problem‐based learning an ideal format for developing ethical decision skills?
Harasym, P. H., Tsai, T., & Munshi, F. M. (2013) · The Kaohsiung Journal of Medical Sciences · doi:10.1016/j.kjms.2013.05.005 · Cited by 50
Kranz, J., Baur, A., & Möller, A. (2022) · Studies in Science Education · doi:10.1080/03057267.2022.2138151 · Cited by 96
“In that sense, the effectiveness of IBL has been questioned in the past (Kirschner et al., 2006; Klahr & Nigam, 2004).”
BackgroundMethodPreservice Science Teachers’ Strategies in Scientific Reasoning: the Case of Modeling
Göhner, M. F., & Krell, M. (2020) · Research in Science Education · doi:10.1007/s11165-020-09945-7 · Cited by 50
“, should educational settings by design be more constrained in regard to the amount of hypotheses and possible experiments if they target children), which were later incorporated into further studies (Klahr and Nigam 2004).”
BackgroundInfluentialComparing Multiple Paths to Mastery: What is Learned?
Nokes, T. J., & Ohlsson, S. (2005) · Cognitive Science · doi:10.1207/s15516709cog0000_32 · Cited by 48
“We are interested in the differences between the knowledge structures acquired by learners who perform at the same level but who arrived at that performance level along different learning paths (for a similar approach, see Klahr & Nigam, 2004 ).”
BackgroundHulshof, C., & de Jong, T. (2006) · Interactive Learning Environments · doi:10.1080/10494820600769171 · Cited by 49
Practice enables successful learning under minimal guidance.
Brunstein, A., Betts, S., & Anderson, J. R. (2009) · Journal of Educational Psychology · doi:10.1037/a0016656 · Cited by 48
“…guided instruction continues to have its advocates (e.g., Fuson et al., 1997; Hiebert et al., 1996; Kamii & Dominick, 1998; von Glasersfeld, 1995), evidence and argument have been accumulating against it (e.g., Kirschner et al., 2006; Klahr & Nigam, 2004; Mayer, 2004; Rittle-Johnson, 2006).”
BackgroundEVALUATING PRESCHOOL CHILDREN'S PREFERENCES FOR MOTIVATIONAL SYSTEMS DURING INSTRUCTION
Heal, N. A., & Hanley, G. P. (2007) · Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis · doi:10.1901/jaba.2007.59-05 · Cited by 48
“…has led to the integration of a range of child-led instructional strategies in preschool classrooms (guided-discovery techniques, embedded and incidental teaching), some of which have little or no empirical support (e.g., exclusively discovery-oriented practices, Klahr & Nigam, 2004; Mayer, 2004).”
BackgroundVorholzer, A., von Aufschnaiter, C., & Boone, W. J. (2018) · Research in Science Education · doi:10.1007/s11165-018-9691-1 · Cited by 49
Waalkens, M., Aleven, V. A. W. M. M., & Taatgen, N. (2012) · Computers & Education · doi:10.1016/j.compedu.2012.07.016 · Cited by 48
“Others claim that direct instruction is better, partly because discovery learning can overload working memory, or because discovery learning is inefficient, or does not lead to good solutions in the first place (Klahr & Nigam, 2004).”
BackgroundLearning by exploring: How much guidance is optimal?
Newman, P. M., & DeCaro, M. S. (2019) · Learning and Instruction · doi:10.1016/j.learninstruc.2019.05.005 · Cited by 58
Caregiver–child interaction influences causal learning and engagement during structured play
Medina, C., & Sobel, D. M. (2019) · Journal of Experimental Child Psychology · doi:10.1016/j.jecp.2019.104678 · Cited by 47
Montessori education's impact on academic and nonacademic outcomes: A systematic review
Randolph, J. J., Bryson, A., Menon, L., Henderson, D. K., Kureethara Manuel, A., Michaels, S., rosenstein, D. L. W., McPherson, W., O'Grady, R., & Lillard, A. S. (2023) · Campbell Systematic Reviews: Better Evidence for a Better World · doi:10.1002/cl2.1330 · Cited by 44
Remote Transfer of Scientific-Reasoning and Problem-Solving Strategies in Children
Chen, Z., & Klahr, D. (2008) · Advances in child development and behavior · doi:10.1016/s0065-2407(08)00010-4 · Cited by 48
“Elementary-school children can overcome what appear to be stubborn misconceptions when they receive instruction and explicit feedback (Chen & Klahr, 1999; Klahr & Carver, 1988; Klahr & Nigam, 2004; Siegler, 1996; Siegler & Chen, 1998).”
BackgroundSelf-citationFOSTERING FIFTH GRADERS’ SCIENTIFIC CREATIVITY THROUGH PROBLEM-BASED LEARNING
Siew, N. M., Chong, C. L., & Lee, B. N. (2015) · Journal of Baltic Science Education · doi:10.33225/jbse/15.14.655 · Cited by 51
Understanding children’s science identity through classroom interactions
Kim, M. (2017) · International Journal of Science Education · doi:10.1080/09500693.2017.1395925 · Cited by 48
“The pedagogical conflict and confusion of instructional guidance often emerges in the discussion about inquiry-based learning (e.g. Dean & Kuhn, 2007; Klahr & Nigam, 2004).”
BackgroundThe influence of prior knowledge on the effectiveness of guided experiment design
van Riesen, S. A. N., Gijlers, H., Anjewierden, A. A., & de Jong, T. (2019) · Interactive Learning Environments · doi:10.1080/10494820.2019.1631193 · Cited by 60
“A strategy that successful researchers often apply is the Control of Variables Strategy (CVS), in which, over a set of trials, all variables are kept constant except the variable for which they want to study its effect on the dependent variable, allowing them to draw conclusions from unconfounded experiments (Klahr &…”
BackgroundInfluentialThe Effects Of The 5e Learning Cycle Model On Students' Understanding Of Force And Motion Concepts
Campbell, M. (2006) · Journal of International Crisis and Risk Communication Research · Cited by 44
Barkl, S. J., Porter, A. W., & Ginns, P. (2012) · Psychology in the Schools · doi:10.1002/pits.21638 · Cited by 44
Early science learning: The effects of teacher talk
Studhalter, U., Leuchter, M., Tettenborn, A., Elmer, A., Edelsbrunner, P. A., & Saalbach, H. (2020) · Learning and Instruction · doi:10.1016/j.learninstruc.2020.101371 · Cited by 56
“This result supports calls for more guidance and structure in science instruction (Alfieri et al., 2011; Kirschner et al., 2006; Klahr & Nigam, 2004; Mayer, 2004).”
ResultPoncy, B. C., McCallum, E., & Schmitt, A. J. (2010) · Psychology in the Schools · doi:10.1002/pits.20514 · Cited by 42
Distinguishing complex ideas about climate change: knowledge integration vs. specific guidance
Vitale, J. M., McBride, E. A., & Linn, M. C. (2016) · International Journal of Science Education · doi:10.1080/09500693.2016.1198969 · Cited by 44
“In response, some researchers advocate for more direct instructional approaches (Klahr & Nigam, 2004).”
BackgroundThe effect of contrasting cases during problem solving prior to and after instruction
Loibl, K., Tillema, M., Rummel, N., & van Gog, T. (2020) · Instructional Science · doi:10.1007/s11251-020-09504-7 · Cited by 42
Using Multimodal Learning Analytics to Identify Aspects of Collaboration in Project-Based Learning
Spikol, D., Ruffaldi, E., & Cukurova, M. (2017) · KTH Publication Database DiVA (KTH Royal Institute of Technology) · doi:10.22318/cscl2017.37 · Cited by 42
The Dramatic Impact of Explicit Instruction on Learning to Read in a New Writing System
Rastle, K., Lally, C., Davis, M. H., & Taylor, J. S. H. (2021) · Psychological Science · doi:10.1177/0956797620968790 · Cited by 42
“Critically, this knowledge generalized to a subsequent task in which children made rich, wide-ranging judgments about science-fair posters (Klahr & Nigam, 2004).”
BackgroundPowell, L. E., Glang, A. E., Ettel, D., Todis, B. J., Sohlberg, M. M., & Albin, R. W. (2012) · Neuropsychological Rehabilitation · doi:10.1080/09602011.2011.640466 · Cited by 42
“Errors are considered an opportunity to problem solve and discover solutions and therefore are not always immediately corrected (e.g., Heal, Hanley, & Layer, 2009; Klahr & Nigam, 2004).”
BackgroundA Constructivist Approach for Digital Learning: Malaysian Schools Case Study.
Sultan, W. H., Woods, P. C., & Koo, A. C. (2011) · Educational Technology & Society · Cited by 42
INSTRUCTION BASED ON COMPUTER SIMULATIONS
de Jong, T. (2011) · Routledge eBooks · doi:10.4324/9780203839089-31 · Cited by 42
“Work claiming that direct instruction is superior to inquiry learning generally involves unguided inquiry (e.g., Klahr & Nigam, 2004).”
BackgroundResultTeaching science in the 21st century
(2006) · Choice Reviews Online · doi:10.5860/choice.44-1069 · Cited by 42
Teaching and Learning with Technology
Marino, M. T., Israel, M., Vasquez, E., Fisher, K. M., & Gallegos, B. (2018) · doi:10.1002/9781118931837.ch15 · Cited by 42
Arega, N. T., & Hunde, T. S. (2025) · Review of Education · doi:10.1002/rev3.70040 · Cited by 41
Jacobson, M. J., Kim, B., Pathak, S. A., & Zhang, B. (2013) · Interactive Learning Environments · doi:10.1080/10494820.2013.792845 · Cited by 42
Scaffolding beim Forschenden Lernen
Arnold, J. C., Kremer, K., & Mayer, J. (2016) · Zeitschrift für Didaktik der Naturwissenschaften · doi:10.1007/s40573-016-0053-0 · Cited by 61
Zhang, L. (2018) · Learning and Instruction · doi:10.1016/j.learninstruc.2018.01.001 · Cited by 40
Lipowsky, F. (2020) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-3-662-61403-7_4 · Cited by 63
de Jong, T., Lazonder, A. W., Chinn, C. A., Fischer, F., Gobert, J. D., Hmelo‐Silver, C. E., Koedinger, K. R., Krajcik, J. S., Kyza, E. Α., Linn, M. C., et al. (2024) · Educational Research Review · doi:10.1016/j.edurev.2024.100623 · Cited by 70
Furtak, E. M., & Alonzo, A. C. (2009) · Research in Science Education · doi:10.1007/s11165-009-9128-y · Cited by 40
“Some recent studies have called the efficacy of inquiry-based science teaching into question because it can be enacted in ways that do not reinforce its underlying conceptual goals (Klahr and Nigam 2004; Pine et al. 2006).”
Backgroundvan Borkulo, S. P., van Joolingen, W., Savelsbergh, E. R., & de Jong, T. (2011) · Journal of Science Education and Technology · doi:10.1007/s10956-011-9314-3 · Cited by 42
“…on the benefits and drawbacks of constructivist teaching methods such as inquiry learning and modeling, as triggered by Kirschner and others (Kirschner et al. 2006; Klahr and Nigam 2004; Mayer 2004), can gain depth by devising such tests to address specific effects on specific types of knowledge.”
BackgroundInfluentialPuhek, M., Perše, M., & Šorgo, A. (2012) · Journal of Baltic Science Education · doi:10.33225/jbse/12.11.164 · Cited by 40
“…be less effective, which may also have negative results when students acquire misconceptions or incomplete or disorganized knowledge (Kirscher, Sweller, & Clark, 2006; Klahr & Nigam 2004), it is broadly accepted that students can develop science understanding only by engaging in it as scientists.”
BackgroundEffects of a ‘Learn to Think’ intervention programme on primary school students
Hu, W., Adey, P. S., Jia, X., Liu, J., Zhang, L., Li, J., & Dong, X. (2010) · British Journal of Educational Psychology · doi:10.1348/2044-8279.002007 · Cited by 48
Design‐based learning for biology
Ellefson, M., Brinker, R., Vernacchio, V. J., & Schunn, C. D. (2008) · Biochemistry and Molecular Biology Education · doi:10.1002/bmb.20203 · Cited by 38
Gee, K. A., & Wong, K. K. (2012) · International Journal of Educational Research · doi:10.1016/j.ijer.2012.04.004 · Cited by 41
Schiefer, J., Golle, J., Tibus, M., Herbein, E., Gindele, V., Trautwein, U., & Oschatz, K. (2019) · British Journal of Educational Psychology · doi:10.1111/bjep.12301 · Cited by 38
“Within each topic, the children’s ‘research projects’ began with fully guided experiments and direct instruction (see Klahr & Nigam, 2004), followed by types of structured inquiry, and finally more open types of guided inquiry (in which, e.g., only the research question and materials were given to…”
BackgroundSupporting Scientific Experimentation and Reasoning in Young Elementary School Students
Varma, K. (2013) · Journal of Science Education and Technology · doi:10.1007/s10956-013-9470-8 · Cited by 39
“Recently, researchers have begun to explore how to promote better scientific reasoning in K-12 students (Klahr and Nigam 2004; Klahr et al. 2011), how to best assess scientific reasoning skills (Kind 2013; Varma et al. 2013), and how to help teachers improve their scientific reasoning instruction…”
BackgroundInfluentialProviding guidance in virtual lab experimentation: the case of an experiment design tool
Efstathiou, C., Hovardas, T., Xenofontos, N. A., Zacharia, Z. C., de Jong, T., Anjewierden, A. A., & van Riesen, S. A. N. (2018) · Educational Technology Research and Development · doi:10.1007/s11423-018-9576-z · Cited by 37
Nachtigall, V., Serova, K., & Rummel, N. (2020) · Instructional Science · doi:10.1007/s11251-020-09525-2 · Cited by 45
Wait for it . . . Delaying Instruction Improves Mathematics Problem Solving: A Classroom Study
Loehr, A. M., Fyfe, E. R., & Rittle‐Johnson, B. (2014) · The Journal of Problem Solving · doi:10.7771/1932-6246.1166 · Cited by 37
To Tutor or Not to Tutor: That is the Question
Leena, R., & Heffernan, N. T. (2009) · Frontiers in artificial intelligence and applications · doi:10.3233/978-1-60750-028-5-457 · Cited by 38
“Giving information can benefit students in that it is less time-consuming and students will make fewer errors [3].”
BackgroundDalgarno, B., Kennedy, G. E., & Bennett, S. (2014) · Educational Media International · doi:10.1080/09523987.2014.977009 · Cited by 35
Child predictors of learning to control variables via instruction or self-discovery
Wagensveld, B., Segers, E., Kleemans, T., & Verhoeven, L. T. W. (2014) · Instructional Science · doi:10.1007/s11251-014-9334-5 · Cited by 33
“The present outcomes are in line with the ample studies showing instruction to be a highly effective method for teaching the CVS in middle to high SES populations (e.g., Chen and Klahr 1999; Klahr and Nigam 2004; Strand-Cary and Klahr 2008), indicating that in these populations the instruction is effectively diminishi…”
BackgroundResultGlaesser, J., Gott, R., Roberts, R., & Cooper, B. (2008) · Research in Science Education · doi:10.1007/s11165-008-9108-7 · Cited by 36
“Piagetian Schema We start with extensive research that has been strongly influenced by Piagetian psychology (Inhelder and Piaget 1958; see for instance Adey 1992; Klahr and Nigam 2004; Kuhn et al. 1988; Schauble 1996; Toth et al. 2000).”
BackgroundExplicit Instruction and Next Generation Science Standards Aligned Classrooms: A Fit or a Split?
Therrien, W. J., Benson, S. K., Hughes, C. A., & Morris, J. R. (2017) · Learning Disabilities Research and Practice · doi:10.1111/ldrp.12137 · Cited by 34
Russ, R. S., & Odden, T. O. B. (2017) · Physical Review Physics Education Research · doi:10.1103/physrevphyseducres.13.020105 · Cited by 35
Bergen, P. V., & Parsell, M. (2018) · The Australian Educational Researcher · doi:10.1007/s13384-018-0285-8 · Cited by 37
Daily fluctuations in young children’s persistence
Leonard, J., Lydon‐Staley, D. M., Sharp, S. D. S., Liu, H. Z., Park, A. T., Bassett, D. S., Duckworth, A. L., & Mackey, A. P. (2021) · Child Development · doi:10.1111/cdev.13717 · Cited by 33
Guided Instruction Improves Elementary Student Learning and Self-Efficacy in Science
Hushman, C. J., & Marley, S. C. (2015) · The Journal of Educational Research · doi:10.1080/00220671.2014.899958 · Cited by 34
“However, instructional experiences do improve the systematic use of CVS in elementary and middle school students (Chen & Klahr, 1999; Dean & Kuhn, 2007; Klahr & Nigam, 2004; Klahr & Li, 2005; Kuhn & Dean, 2005).”
BackgroundMethodResultInfluentialJešková, Z., Lukáč, S., Hančová, M., Šnajder, Ľ., Guniš, J., Balogová, B., & Kireš, M. (2016) · Journal of Baltic Science Education · doi:10.33225/jbse/16.15.559 · Cited by 35
Schuster, D., Cobern, W. W., Adams, B. A., Undreiu, A., & Pleasants, B. A.-S. (2017) · Research in Science Education · doi:10.1007/s11165-016-9573-3 · Cited by 43
“We do not research the efficacy of methods for teaching practices, but some other research does so, for example Klahr and Nigam (2004), Dean and Kuhn (2006), and Matlen and Klahr (2013) for the control of variables strategy.”
BackgroundMethodPresenting theoretical ideas prior to inquiry activities fosters theory‐level knowledge
Wecker, C., Rachel, A., Heran‐Dörr, E., Waltner, C., Wiesner, H., & Fischer, F. (2013) · Journal of Research in Science Teaching · doi:10.1002/tea.21106 · Cited by 33
Sengupta‐Irving, T., & Enyedy, N. (2014) · Journal of the Learning Sciences · doi:10.1080/10508406.2014.928214 · Cited by 34
“In commonplace usage, many people see a Guided approach as featuring explicit instruction with a small amount of directed exploration, whereas they see Open as designed for students to generate strategies and engage in their own explorations (e.g., Klahr, 2009; Klahr & Nigam, 2004).”
BackgroundEmbedding Experiments: Staking Causal Inference in Authentic Educational Contexts
Motz, B. A., Carvalho, P. F., de Leeuw, J. R., & Goldstone, R. L. (2018) · Journal of Learning Analytics · doi:10.18608/jla.2018.52.4 · Cited by 34
How to open inquiry teaching? An alternative teaching scaffold to foster students’ inquiry skills
Baur, A., & Emden, M. (2020) · Chemistry Teacher International · doi:10.1515/cti-2019-0013 · Cited by 45
Developing an Understanding of Science
Shtulman, A., & Walker, C. M. (2020) · Annual Review of Developmental Psychology · doi:10.1146/annurev-devpsych-060320-092346 · Cited by 34
Kapıcı, H. Ö., Akçay, H., & ÇAKIR, H. (2022) · International Journal of Science Education · doi:10.1080/09500693.2022.2028926 · Cited by 34
“Supporters of these two extreme approaches advocate that their instructional approach is the best under certain circumstances such as topic, students’ knowledge, and classroom time (de Jong & Lazonder, 2014; Dean & Kuhn, 2007; Klahr & Nigam, 2004).”
BackgroundGobert, J. D., Moussavi, R., Li, H., Pedro, M. S., & Dickler, R. (2018) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-3-319-76935-6_8 · Cited by 39
Reid, J. W., Kırbulut, Z. D., Fateh, S., Fatima, A., Macrie-Shuck, M., Nennig, H. T., Quintanilla, F., States, N. E., Syed, A., Cole, R. S., et al. (2021) · Chemistry Education Research and Practice · doi:10.1039/d1rp00227a · Cited by 33
Bonawitz, E. B., Shafto, P., Hyowon Gweon, C., Chang, I., Katz, S. M., & Schulz, L. (2009) · eScholarship (California Digital Library) · Cited by 32
Upadhyay, B. R., & DeFranco, C. (2008) · Journal of Elementary Science Education · doi:10.1007/bf03173668 · Cited by 32
“Most studies related to elementary science and elementary students focus on short-term gains in science knowledge and vocabulary (e.g., Klahr & Nigam, 2004; Knapp & Barrie, 2001; Semb & Ellis, 1994; Stahl & Clark, 1987).”
BackgroundResultImplicit Analogies in Learning: Supporting Transfer by Warming Up
Sidney, P. G., & Thompson, C. A. (2019) · Current Directions in Psychological Science · doi:10.1177/0963721419870801 · Cited by 30
“These recommendations are well aligned with other research on classroom learning (e.g., Klahr & Nigam, 2004); learners are unlikely to discover important structural relationships without direct instruction that highlights the most important information (Kirschner, Sweller, & Clark, 2006).”
ResultReith, M., & Nehring, A. (2020) · International Journal of Science Education · doi:10.1080/09500693.2020.1834168 · Cited by 33
Costley, J. (2016) · The Journal of Educators Online · doi:10.9743/jeo.2016.1.3 · Cited by 30
“The positive effect that instructor control has on critical thinking meshes well with other research on this topic, which has shown that when students attempt to broaden their ideas and make judgments, direct instruction is more effective than indirect discovery learning (Klahr and Nigam, 2004).”
BackgroundDesirable difficulties during the development of active inquiry skills
Kachergis, G., Rhodes, M., & Gureckis, T. M. (2017) · Cognition · doi:10.1016/j.cognition.2017.05.021 · Cited by 30
Leblebicioğlu, G., Abik, N. M., Çapkınoğlu, E., et al. (2017) · Research in Science Education · doi:10.1007/s11165-017-9652-0 · Cited by 30
Self-Generation in the Context of Inquiry-Based Learning
Kaiser, I., Mayer, J., & Malai, D. (2018) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2018.02440 · Cited by 34
“This might inhibit long-term retention (e.g., Klahr and Nigam, 2004; Kirschner et al., 2006).”
InfluentialINQUIRY-BASED SCIENCE EDUCATION AS A REVISION STRATEGY
Сотакова, І., Ganajová, M., & Babinčáková, M. (2020) · Journal of Baltic Science Education · doi:10.33225/jbse/20.19.499 · Cited by 31
“…learning process or their learning outcomes (Chang & Mao, 1999; Schneider et al., 2002; Von Secker & Lissitz, 1999) no improvement in terms of understanding natural phenomena (Khisfe & AbdEl-Khalick, 2002) or enhanced understanding of scientific procedures (Berg et al., 2003; Klahr & Nigam, 2004).”
BackgroundUnpacking the Black Box of Translation: A framework for infusing spatial thinking into curricula
Gagnier, K. M., & Fisher, K. R. (2020) · Cognitive Research Principles and Implications · doi:10.1186/s41235-020-00222-9 · Cited by 36
Chi, S., Wang, Z., & Liu, X. (2021) · International Journal of Science Education · doi:10.1080/09500693.2021.1968532 · Cited by 31
Learning by self-explaining causal diagrams in high-school biology
Cho, Y. H., & Jonassen, D. H. (2011) · Asia Pacific Education Review · doi:10.1007/s12564-011-9187-4 · Cited by 29
Yates, G. C. R. (2005) · Educational Psychology · doi:10.1080/01443410500345180 · Cited by 29
Science teaching based on cognitive load theory: Engaged students, but cognitive deficiencies
Meissner, B. A., & Bogner, F. X. (2012) · Studies In Educational Evaluation · doi:10.1016/j.stueduc.2012.10.002 · Cited by 30
“Kirschner, Sweller, and Clark (2006) have – among others (e.g. Klahr & Nigam, 2004; Moreno, 2004) – already demonstrated the importance of such adequately developed guidance that leads learners to identify relevant information and to achieve educational objectives.”
BackgroundWhat Makes Everyday Scientific Reasoning So Challenging?
(2017) · Psychology of Learning and Motivation · doi:10.1016/bs.plm.2016.11.006 · Cited by 29
“ANCOVA reasoning is relevant in “control of variables” contexts (Klahr & Nigam, 2004), and more generally, ANCOVA reasoning is associated with generating alternative explanations for any empirical evidence.”
BackgroundInfluential
Metadata
- Authors
- Klahr, D., & Nigam, M.
- Affiliations
- Carnegie Mellon University (US)
- University of Pittsburgh (US)
- Venue
- Psychological Science
- Publisher
- SAGE Publications
- Published
- 2004-10
- Volume
- 15
- Issue
- 10
- Pages
- 661-667
- ISSN
- 0956-7976 (ISSN-L)
- 1467-9280
- OpenAlex
- W2139559367
- Cited by
- 977
- References
- 35
- Citations by year
- 2026: 28 · 2025: 31 · 2024: 39 · 2023: 36 · 2022: 41 · 2021: 59 · 2020: 59 · 2019: 45 · 2018: 63 · 2017: 53 · 2016: 64 · 2015: 49 · 2014: 49 · 2013: 50 · 2012: 69
- FWCI
- 115.71
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- green
- doi.org
- Locations
- Psychological Science (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- Figshare (submittedVersion)
- KiltHub Repository
- Funders
- Eunice Kennedy Shriver National Institute of Child Health and Human Development (R01HD025211)
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Education › Science Education and Pedagogy
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Experimental and Cognitive Psychology › Visual and Cognitive Learning Processes
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Developmental and Educational Psychology › Innovative Teaching and Learning Methods
- Keywords
- discovery learning, direct instruction, early childhood science education, elementary school students, experimental design, transfer of learning, scientific reasoning, learning trajectories, teaching effectiveness
- MeSH terms
- Achievement, Child, Female, Humans, Learning, Male, Science, Teaching
About these checks
Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.
A language model drew the claims from the paper on 2026-10-11, under version 3 of the claim definition (model deepseek-v4.1-flash, prompt extract-v3).
A second model labelled each claim on 2026-10-11 (model jev-1.13-20260917, definition revision gold-guideline-v0.2).
Cited sources are checked with a language model’s help (gpt-6-sol).
Statistics and arithmetic are recomputed, not judged.
Confidence bands are shown only for fields calibrated on our annotated test set. None is calibrated yet, so no band is shown.
What counts as a claim ›How we measure confidence ›How we check this ›
Are you an author, or do you see a problem with this page? Request a review
