The DOI matches its Crossref record; 33 of the 35 references it cites were found in a registry or an index; 1 of the 14 sources its claims cite were checked for support.
The Equivalence of Learning Paths in Early Science Instruction: Effects of Direct Instruction and Discovery Learning
Open accessAbstract
In a study with 112 third- and fourth-grade children, we measured the relative effectiveness of discovery learning and direct instruction at two points in the learning process: (a) during the initial acquisition of the basic cognitive objective (a procedure for designing and interpreting simple, unconfounded experiments) and (b) during the subsequent transfer and application of this basic skill to more diffuse and authentic reasoning associated with the evaluation of science-fair posters. We found not only that many more children learned from direct instruction than from discovery learning, but also that when asked to make broader, richer scientific judgments, the many children who learned about experimental design from direct instruction performed as well as those few children who discovered the method on their own. These results challenge predictions derived from the presumed superiority of discovery approaches in teaching young children basic procedures for early scientific investigations.
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Claims the paper makes
1 of 14 cited sources checked · 0 supported · 0 flagged · accuracy not yet measured
The cited sources support only part of this claim — read each source’s verdict below.
In the paper
“When the direct-instruction procedure was adapted from an experimental script to a lesson plan implemented in a classroom setting, mean CVS performance increased from 30% prior to instruction to 96% following instruction (Toth, Klahr, & Chen, 2000).”
§ The Equivalence of Learning Paths in Early Science Instruction Effects of Direct Instruction and Discovery Learning > Abstract
What the sources say
- Partly supportedcites Toth, Klahr, & Chen, 2000 sourceExperimental — accuracy not yet measured
The CVS Performance section reports that mean performance in individual interviews increased from 30% before instruction to 97% after instruction, not 96%. The classroom-worksheet analysis also reports 97% after instruction, but its preinstruction figure is 58%. (LLM, conf=0.90)
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passes- Partly supported
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The results, shown in Table 2, replicated the pattern for the grand poster score: Experts and masters outperformed nonmasters, regardless of the learning paths.”
§ The Equivalence of Learning Paths in Early Science Instruction Effects of Direct Instruction and Discovery Learning > Day 2: Poster Evaluations
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesA result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Table 2 shows that experts, discovery masters, and direct-instruction masters had higher grand poster scores than discovery nonmasters and direct-instruction nonmasters, d 5 0.83.”
§ The Equivalence of Learning Paths in Early Science Instruction Effects of Direct Instruction and Discovery Learning > Day 2: Poster Evaluations
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesA result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Forty of the 52 direct-instruction children (77%) became masters, whereas only 12 of the 52 discovery children (23%) did so, w 2 (1, N 5 104) 5 28.0, p < .0001(with Yates correction).”
§ The Equivalence of Learning Paths in Early Science Instruction Effects of Direct Instruction and Discovery Learning > Day 1: CVS Exploration and Assessment
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesA result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Moreover, there were no statistical differences among the grand poster scores for experts, discovery masters, and direct-instruction masters.”
§ The Equivalence of Learning Paths in Early Science Instruction Effects of Direct Instruction and Discovery Learning > Day 2: Poster Evaluations
Load-bearingStrength:plain· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesA result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“We found not only that many more children learned from direct instruction than from discovery learning, but also that when asked to make broader, richer scientific judgments, the many children who learned about experimental design from direct instruction performed as well as those few children who discovered the method on their own.”
- Also stated in: § Day 1: CVS Exploration and Assessment · plain
“direct instruction produced many more masters than did discovery learning.”
- Also stated in: § DISCUSSION · boosted
“these results replicate other studies in which direct instruction was clearly superior to discovery learning in facilitating children's acquisition of CVS”
§ The Equivalence of Learning Paths in Early Science Instruction Effects of Direct Instruction and Discovery Learning > Abstract
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passes- Also stated in: § Day 1: CVS Exploration and Assessment · plain
In the paper
“Chen and Klahr (1999) demonstrated that direct instruction on CVS led to statistically and educationally significant improvement in children's ability to design simple, unconfounded experiments.”
§ The Equivalence of Learning Paths in Early Science Instruction Effects of Direct Instruction and Discovery Learning > Abstract
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Chen and Klahr (1999) source
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesA conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Children who became masters via direct instruction were as skilled at evaluating science-fair posters as were discovery-learning masters and experts.”
- Also stated in: § Day 2: Poster Evaluations · plain
“In other words, the grand poster scores of the three groups that achieved high levels of CVS performance via different paths were indistinguishable.”
§ The Equivalence of Learning Paths in Early Science Instruction Effects of Direct Instruction and Discovery Learning > DISCUSSION
Load-bearingStrength:plain· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passes- Rests on an assumption: The two science-fair posters used in the transfer task are highly imperfect and thus afford wide-ranging evaluations.
- Also stated in: § Day 2: Poster Evaluations · plain
In the paper
“Moreover, students receiving direct instruction were superior to control students on a far-transfer test of experimental design administered 7 months later.”
§ The Equivalence of Learning Paths in Early Science Instruction Effects of Direct Instruction and Discovery Learning > Abstract
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Chen and Klahr (1999) source
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesA conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“These results challenge predictions derived from the presumed superiority of discovery approaches in teaching young children basic procedures for early scientific investigations.”
§ The Equivalence of Learning Paths in Early Science Instruction Effects of Direct Instruction and Discovery Learning > Abstract
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passes
- It may state two separate claims as one. 6
- Probably not a substantial claim. 9
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“CVS scores for direct-instruction children increased dramatically from exploration to assessment: from 1.0 to 3.1, t(51) 5 10.5, p < .0001,d 5 1.73 (see Fig. 3).Scores for children in the discovery condition also increased, but much less: from 0.6 to 1.5, t(51) 5 5.3, p < .0001,d 5 0.725.”
§ The Equivalence of Learning Paths in Early Science Instruction Effects of Direct Instruction and Discovery Learning > Day 1: CVS Exploration and Assessment
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The grand poster scores of the two groups who failed to master CVS were also indis-tinguishable, but significantly lower than the scores of the three high-CVS-score groups.”
§ The Equivalence of Learning Paths in Early Science Instruction Effects of Direct Instruction and Discovery Learning > Day 2: Poster Evaluations
Load-bearingStrength:plain· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“Finally, most developmental and cognitive theories predict that many of the phenomena associated with discovery learning would make it a relatively ineffective instructional method (Mayer, 2004).”
§ The Equivalence of Learning Paths in Early Science Instruction Effects of Direct Instruction and Discovery Learning > Abstract
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Mayer, 2004 source
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim.
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“Empirical challenges come from studies demonstrating that teacher-centered methods using direct instruction are highly effective (cf.Brophy & Good, 1986;Rosenshine & Stevens, 1986), particularly for teaching multistep procedures that students are unlikely to discover on their own, such as those involved in geometry, algebra, and computer programming (Anderson, Corbett, Koedinger, & Pelletier, 1995”
§ The Equivalence of Learning Paths in Early Science Instruction Effects of Direct Instruction and Discovery Learning > Abstract
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites Brophy & Good, 1986
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
- Not matchedcites Rosenshine & Stevens, 1986
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Anderson, Corbett, Koedinger, & Pelletier, 1995 source
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim.
- Not matched
None of the sources cited for this claim could be matched to a paper in Crossref, so there is nothing to check it against.
In the paper
“CVS mastery is considered a central instructional objective from a wide variety of educational perspectives (DeBoer, 1991;Duschl, 1990;Murnane & Raizen, 1988;National Research Council, 1995).”
§ The Equivalence of Learning Paths in Early Science Instruction Effects of Direct Instruction and Discovery Learning > Abstract
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites DeBoer, 1991
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
- Not matchedcites Duschl, 1990
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
- Not matchedcites Murnane & Raizen, 1988
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
Strength:plain· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✗ Load-bearing: fails✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Not matched
In the paper
“For children receiving direct instruction, mean performance on CVS increased in the psychology lab from 40% correct prior to instruction to 80% correct following instruction, whereas children in the discoverylearning condition showed no significant improvement.”
§ The Equivalence of Learning Paths in Early Science Instruction Effects of Direct Instruction and Discovery Learning > Abstract
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Chen and Klahr (1999) source
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“For example, children in discovery situations are more likely than those receiving direct instruction to encounter inconsistent or misleading feedback, to make encoding errors and causal misattributions, and to experience inadequate practice and elaboration.”
§ The Equivalence of Learning Paths in Early Science Instruction Effects of Direct Instruction and Discovery Learning > Abstract
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Mayer, 2004 source
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim. It may state two separate claims as one.
What the paper did — it cites no source for this, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Children from both grades at each school were randomly assigned to either the direct-instruction condition or the discovery-learning condition.”
§ The Equivalence of Learning Paths in Early Science Instruction Effects of Direct Instruction and Discovery Learning > METHOD
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim.
What the paper did — it cites no source for this, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“During the assessment phase, the experimenter did not provide any feedback in either condition.”
§ The Equivalence of Learning Paths in Early Science Instruction Effects of Direct Instruction and Discovery Learning > METHOD
Strength:plain· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✗ Load-bearing: fails✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
What the paper did — it cites no source for this, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“It is important to note that in our operationalization, the difference between direct instruction and discovery learning does not involve a difference between ''active'' and ''passive'' learning.In both conditions, students were actively engaged in the design of their experiments and the physical manipulation of the apparatus.”
§ The Equivalence of Learning Paths in Early Science Instruction Effects of Direct Instruction and Discovery Learning > METHOD
Load-bearingStrength:plain· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
What the paper did — it cites no source for this, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“A different experimenter (blind to training condition) asked all children to evaluate two science-fair posters”
§ The Equivalence of Learning Paths in Early Science Instruction Effects of Direct Instruction and Discovery Learning > METHOD
Load-bearingStrength:plain· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim.
What the paper did — it cites no source for this, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Children's responses were transcribed from audiotape and coded independently by two coders.(There was 83% agreement between coders on what constituted a valid critique.)”
§ The Equivalence of Learning Paths in Early Science Instruction Effects of Direct Instruction and Discovery Learning > METHOD
Load-bearingStrength:plain· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim. It may state two separate claims as one.
What the paper did — it cites no source for this, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Children were assessed individually, and the order of poster presentation was counterbalanced.”
§ The Equivalence of Learning Paths in Early Science Instruction Effects of Direct Instruction and Discovery Learning > METHOD
Strength:plain· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✗ Load-bearing: fails✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
The paper relies on this without support.
The operationalized direct-instruction and discovery-learning conditions adequately represent the two instructional approaches despite the lack of a consistent definition of discovery learning.
“However, at the outset, we faced a difficult definitional problem because nearly 100 years of research (cf.Winch, 1913) had yet to produce a consistent definition of discovery learning.foot_0Therefore, we intentionally magnified the difference between the two instructional treatments in order to provide a strong test of the pathindependent transfer hypothesis.”
The paper relies on this without support.
The two science-fair posters used in the transfer task are highly imperfect and thus afford wide-ranging evaluations.
“An important feature of these posters is that they described highly imperfect experiments, thus affording opportunities for wide-ranging evaluations.”
Claims other papers make about this one
Each is checked against this paper’s own text: does it say what the citing paper says it does?
The source backs part of the claim, not all of it — or backs it for a different population, condition or comparison.
In the citing paper
“Discovery learning approaches typically do not have positive academic outcomes when compared with more traditional direct instruction (Klahr, 2004; Mayer, 2004).”
From Montessori education's impact on academic and nonacademic outcomes: A systematic review (2023) · cites this paper as Klahr, 2004
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredThe source backs part of the claim, not all of it — or backs it for a different population, condition or comparison.
In the citing paper
“The work of Klahr and Nigam (2004), discussed earlier, unambiguously demonstrated the advantages of direct instruction in science.”
From Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work: An Analysis of the Failure of Constructivist, Discovery, Problem-Based, Experiential, and Inquiry-Based Teaching (2006) · cites this paper as Klahr & Nigam, 2004
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredThe cited source says what the claim attributes to it.
In the citing paper
“Direct instruction involving considerable guidance, including examples, resulted in vastly more learning than discovery.”
From Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work: An Analysis of the Failure of Constructivist, Discovery, Problem-Based, Experiential, and Inquiry-Based Teaching (2006) · cites this paper as Klahr & Nigam, 2004
The cited source says what the claim attributes to it.
In the citing paper
“Those relatively few students who learned via discovery showed no signs of superior quality of learning.”
From Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work: An Analysis of the Failure of Constructivist, Discovery, Problem-Based, Experiential, and Inquiry-Based Teaching (2006) · cites this paper as Klahr & Nigam, 2004
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Cited by
Sorted by citations
Items 301–400 of 917
Ruíz-Gallardo, J.-R., & Reavey, D. (2018) · Journal of the Learning Sciences · doi:10.1080/10508406.2018.1506988 · Cited by 35
“Many studies have supported this theory for children (Klahr & Nigam, 2004; Matlen & Klahr, 2013; Chase & Klahr, 2017) and also for university students: Seery and Donnelly (2012) showed how prelectures about key concepts helped chemistry students with little prior knowledge during subsequent…”
BackgroundLazonder, A. W. (2013) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-1-4614-3185-5_36 · Cited by 33
Glaesser, J., Gott, R., Roberts, R., & Cooper, B. (2009) · Research in Science & Technological Education · doi:10.1080/02635140802658784 · Cited by 29
“Klahr and Nigam (2004) demonstrated the effects of explicit teaching, which seemed to develop understanding which lasted much longer than in students who were just left to practice.”
BackgroundMethodWartono, W., Takaria, J., Batlolona, J. R., et al. (2018) · Jurnal Ilmiah Pendidikan Fisika Al-Biruni · doi:10.24042/jipfalbiruni.v7i2.2629 · Cited by 28
“…learning is learning that allows students to use all their potentials both cognitive, effective, and psychomotor, especially mental processes to discover their own concepts or principles of physics and can train other mental processes that characterize a scientist (Klahr & Nigam, 2004).”
BackgroundPromoting Inclusive Practices in Inquiry-Based Science Classrooms
Watt, S. J., Therrien, W. J., Kaldenberg, E. R., & Taylor, J. (2013) · Teaching Exceptional Children · doi:10.1177/004005991304500405 · Cited by 27
“Students engaged in inquiry-based learning within a pure discovery learning paradigm are more likely to become overwhelmed with information and may create misleading conclusions or encode errors within their investigations or experiments (Klahr & Nigam, 2004).”
BackgroundKlahr, D. (2013) · Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences · doi:10.1073/pnas.1212738110 · Cited by 29
“For example in one study (28), after a 20-min training session, 75% of the students in the direct instruction condition mastered CVS, whereas only 25% of the students in the discovery condition did so.”
BackgroundSelf-citationData-Driven Belief Revision in Children and Adults
Masnick, A. M., Klahr, D., & Knowles, E. R. (2016) · Journal of Cognition and Development · doi:10.1080/15248372.2016.1168824 · Cited by 28
“Their ability to create unconfounded experiments (Chen & Klahr, 1999; Klahr & Nigam, 2004) was not assessed in this study. the two conditions being compared (14.15 s in the weight trials and 14.45 s in the angle trials).”
BackgroundResultInfluentialSelf-citationTan, A., & Wong, H. M. (2011) · International Journal of Science Education · doi:10.1080/09500693.2011.565378 · Cited by 31
The potential of discovery learning models to empower students’ critical thinking skills
Chusni, M. M., Saputro, S., Suranto, S., et al. (2020) · Journal of Physics Conference Series · doi:10.1088/1742-6596/1464/1/012036 · Cited by 27
Learning efficacy and user acceptance of a game-based social skills learning environment
Tan, J. L., Goh, D. H., Ang, R. P.-H., & Huan, V. S. L. (2016) · International Journal of Child-Computer Interaction · doi:10.1016/j.ijcci.2016.09.001 · Cited by 31
Supporting learners’ experiment design
van Riesen, S., Gijlers, H., Anjewierden, A. A., & de Jong, T. (2018) · Educational Technology Research and Development · doi:10.1007/s11423-017-9568-4 · Cited by 27
“In the ‘vary one thing at a time’ heuristic, also known as the control of variables strategy (CVS), learners vary only the variable of interest and keep all other variables constant (Klahr and Nigam 2004).”
BackgroundHow Much Assistance Is Helpful to Students in Discovery Learning?
Borek, A., McLaren, B. M., Karabinos, M., & Yaron, D. (2009) · Lecture notes in computer science · doi:10.1007/978-3-642-04636-0_38 · Cited by 28
“[2,3,4]) argue that higher assistance (direct instruction and/or tutoring of basic skills) leads to better learning results because it provides information that students cannot create on their own.”
BackgroundINTRODUCTORY STATISTICS COURSE TERTIARY STUDENTS’ UNDERSTANDING OF P-VALUES
Reaburn, R. (2014) · Statistics Education Research Journal · doi:10.52041/serj.v13i1.298 · Cited by 25
“This style of learning is based on the idea that knowledge students find for themselves has more value than knowledge that has been merely explained (Klahr & Nigam, 2004).”
BackgroundEvaluation of a digital UDL-based learning environment in inclusive chemistry education
Baumann, T. M., & Melle, I. (2019) · Chemistry Teacher International · doi:10.1515/cti-2018-0026 · Cited by 26
Shi, W.-Z., Ma, L., & Wang, J. (2020) · Journal of Baltic Science Education · doi:10.33225/jbse/20.19.289 · Cited by 28
“Klahr & Nigam (2004) argued that students with lower inquiry techniques had been shown to be more appropriate with direct instruction.”
BackgroundCairns, D., & Areepattamannil, S. (2021) · Research in Science Education · doi:10.1007/s11165-021-10002-0 · Cited by 27
“…2010), (b) provided structured inquiry learning experiences (Furtak et al., 2012; Hmelo-Silver, 2011; Hmelo-Silver et al., 2007; Salamon et al., 1991), and (c) where students had sufficient prior subject (van Riesen et al., 2018) and process skills knowledge (Bredderman, 1985; Klahr & Nigam, 2004).”
BackgroundCrismond, D. (2011) · SensePublishers eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-94-6091-549-9_13 · Cited by 26
Renken, M. D., & Nunez, N. L. (2009) · Applied Cognitive Psychology · doi:10.1002/acp.1587 · Cited by 27
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Classroom-based Experiments in Productive Failure
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“Whatever approach is chosen, it is clear that students cannot perform inquiry, modeling, or a combination of the two without scaffolding (Klahr and Nigam, 2004; Mayer, 2004).”
BackgroundThe Psychology of Scientific Thinking: Implications for Science Teaching and Learning
Li, J., & Klahr, D. (2018) · Figshare · doi:10.1184/r1/6618713 · Cited by 26
Self-citationDeLisi, J., Kook, J. F., Levy, A. J., et al. (2020) · Journal of Research in Science Teaching · doi:10.1002/tea.21669 · Cited by 25
Çetin, P. S. (2021) · Journal of Chemical Education · doi:10.1021/acs.jchemed.0c01364 · Cited by 25
Liu, Y., & Wang, J. (2022) · International Journal of Science Education · doi:10.1080/09500693.2022.2067364 · Cited by 32
“An ideal inquiry-based learning requires a benign classroom climate (Klahr & Nigam, 2004) whose essential aspects include teacher support (Pianta, 2004).”
BackgroundRoesch, F., Nerb, J., & Rieß, W. (2015) · International Journal of Science Education · doi:10.1080/09500693.2014.1000427 · Cited by 25
“Compared with performance assessment methods (e.g. Klahr & Nigam, 2004), with interviews about conceptions on experimentation and inquiry strategies (Carey et al., 1989), and with computerbased tools with logfile-based data (e.g. Thillmann et al., 2009), paper-and-pencil tests show a lower level of…”
BackgroundMethodInfluentialEvaluation of Internal and External Validity of a Virtual Environment for Learning a Long Procedure
Hoareau, C., Querrec, R., Buche, C., & Ganier, F. (2017) · International Journal of Human-Computer Interaction · doi:10.1080/10447318.2017.1286768 · Cited by 24
“The impossibility to transfer is attributed to an insufficient basic training by several authors (Klahr & Nigam, 2004; Lee, 1998; Lee & Pennington, 1993; Littlefield, Delclos, Bransford, Clayton, & Franks, 1989).”
BackgroundExplicit promotion of experimental skills. And what about the content-related skills?
Kalthoff, B., Theyßen, H., & Schreiber, N. (2018) · International Journal of Science Education · doi:10.1080/09500693.2018.1477262 · Cited by 26
“Taking the studies from the meta-analyses into account, Schwichow et al. (2016b, p. 18) conclude that explicit instruction in respect of the CVS is not more effective than implicit instruction. But they use a very comprehensive definition of explicit instruction, including all studies that at least state the CVS conce…”
Haber, A. S., Leech, K. A., Benton, D. T., Dashoush, N., & Corriveau, K. H. (2021) · Early Childhood Research Quarterly · doi:10.1016/j.ecresq.2021.05.008 · Cited by 25
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Teplá, M., & Distler, P. (2025) · Humanities and Social Sciences Communications · doi:10.1057/s41599-025-04437-3 · Cited by 25
Luján, J. F. G., & Payá, E. (2020) · Sustainability · doi:10.3390/su12124893 · Cited by 24
“, when the teacher does not provide instruction or feedback [8,9].”
BackgroundBeckmann, J. F., & Goode, N. (2013) · Instructional Science · doi:10.1007/s11251-013-9280-7 · Cited by 23
How to sequence video modeling examples and inquiry tasks to foster scientific reasoning
Scheiter, K., Oschatz, K., & Kant, J. M. (2017) · Learning and Instruction · doi:10.15496/publikation-28697 · Cited by 23
Öğrenci Merkezli Strateji, Yöntem ve Tekniklerin Akademik Başarıya Etkisi: Bir Meta-Analiz Çalışması
Uyar, M. Y., & Doğanay, A. (2018) · Mersin Üniversitesi Eğitim Fakültesi Dergisi · doi:10.17860/mersinefd.334542 · Cited by 23
Kulasegaram, K. M., Axelrod, D. E., Ringsted, C. V., & Brydges, R. (2018) · Academic Medicine · doi:10.1097/acm.0000000000002378 · Cited by 23
Martella, A. M., Klahr, D., & Li, W. (2020) · Journal of Educational Psychology · doi:10.1037/edu0000449 · Cited by 35
“These test questions were very similar to questions previously asked in several closely related studies (e.g., Chen & Klahr, 1999; Klahr & Nigam, 2004) and were matched in wording and complexity to the questions asked on the pretest.”
InfluentialSelf-citationKim, M. (2021) · International Journal of Science and Mathematics Education · doi:10.1007/s10763-021-10233-7 · Cited by 35
Predictors of Transfer of Experimental Design Skills in Elementary and Middle School Children
Siler, S. A., Klahr, D., Magaro, C., Willows, K., & Mowery, D. (2010) · Lecture notes in computer science · doi:10.1007/978-3-642-13437-1_20 · Cited by 23
Self-citationLearning to map: Strategy discovery and strategy change in young children.
Chen, Z. (2007) · Developmental Psychology · doi:10.1037/0012-1649.43.2.386 · Cited by 23
The effect of gestured instruction on the learning of physical causality problems
Carlson, C., Jacobs, S. A., Perry, M., et al. (2014) · Gesture · doi:10.1075/gest.14.1.02car · Cited by 23
Implementing a Flipped Classroom in Thermodynamics
Lemley, E. C., Jassemnejad, B., Judd, E., Ring, B. P., Henderson, A. W., & Armstrong, G. (2020) · ASEE Annual Conference & Exposition · doi:10.18260/1-2--19717 · Cited by 23
Liou, P., & Ho, H. N. J. (2016) · Research Papers in Education · doi:10.1080/02671522.2016.1236832 · Cited by 23
“Findings related to the definitions and effectiveness of student-oriented instructional practices for science achievement have been debated among scholars, and have revealed heterogeneous patterns (Hänze and Berger 2007; Klahr and Nigam 2004; Lee et al. 2010).”
BackgroundKjærnsli, M., Jensen, F., Frønes, T. S., Hatlevik, O. E., Nortvedt, G. A., Pettersen, A., & Rohatgi, A. (2016) · Universitetsforlaget eBooks · doi:10.18261/9788215027463-2016 · Cited by 26
The Impact of a Construction Play on 5- to 6-Year-Old Children’s Reasoning About Stability
Weber, A. M., Reuter, T., & Leuchter, M. (2020) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2020.01737 · Cited by 22
“In contrast, studies indicate that children’s unguided explorations might not be sufficient to encounter the learning objective (Butts et al., 1994; Chen and Klahr, 1999; Klahr and Nigam, 2004; Sarama and Clements, 2009).”
ResultThe Role of Alternative Theories and Anomalous Evidence in Children’s Scientific Belief Revision
Ganea, P. A., Larsen, N. E., & Venkadasalam, V. P. (2020) · Child Development · doi:10.1111/cdev.13481 · Cited by 22
Franse, R. K., van Schijndel, T. J. P., Plankman, T. I., & Raijmakers, M. E. J. (2021) · Science Education · doi:10.1002/sce.21620 · Cited by 27
“One explanation for the above chance CVS performance in this study might be that families visiting science museums already possess CVS knowledge (Dean & Kuhn, 2007; Klahr & Nigam, 2004).”
BackgroundMethodInfluentialFinding the Cause: Verbal Framing Helps Children Extract Causal Evidence Embedded in a Complex Scene
Butler, L. P., & Markman, E. M. (2012) · Journal of Cognition and Development · doi:10.1080/15248372.2011.567201 · Cited by 21
“On the other hand, work with older children (e.g., Chen & Klahr, 1999; Klahr & Nigam, 2004; Kuhn, 1989) shows that some years later, they have difficulty applying analogous probabilistic inference capacities to scientific reasoning problems.”
BackgroundTraining the Scientific Thinking Circle in Pre- and Primary School Children
Dejonckheere, P., Keere, K. V. D., & Mestdagh, N. (2009) · The Journal of Educational Research · doi:10.1080/00220670903228595 · Cited by 27
Designing Process-Oriented Guided-Inquiry Activities: A New Innovationl for Marketing Classes
Hale, D. H., & Mullen, L. G. (2009) · Marketing Education Review · doi:10.1080/10528008.2009.11489063 · Cited by 22
“The concept of structured, heavily guided instruction has been an effective means of instructional design (see Moreno 2004; Klahr and Nigam 2004; Chall 2000).”
BackgroundSmets, W., & Struyven, K. (2018) · Education Sciences · doi:10.3390/educsci8030113 · Cited by 23
“46), may be seen as pivotal to fostering students’ learning [3,4].”
Learning systems and learning paths in sustainability transitions
Svare, H., Gjefsen, M. D., den Boer, A. C. L., et al. (2023) · Ecology and Society · doi:10.5751/es-13868-280122 · Cited by 21
Impacts of students' experimentation using a dynamic visualization on their understanding of motion
McElhaney, K. W., & Linn, M. C. (2008) · International Conference of Learning Sciences · Cited by 21
Holzinger, A., Emberger, W., Wassertheurer, S., & Neal, L. (2008) · e+i Elektrotechnik und Informationstechnik · doi:10.1007/s00502-008-0537-9 · Cited by 21
Wu, Y., & Tsai, C. (2010) · Research in Science Education · doi:10.1007/s11165-010-9189-y · Cited by 22
“In particular, some previous studies designed according to the perspectives of cognitive load theory have revealed the effectiveness of guided instruction in the transfer of learning (e.g., Klahr and Nigam 2004; van Merrienboer et al. 2002).”
BackgroundInfluentialLearning and retention through predictive inference and classification.
Sakamoto, Y., & Love, B. C. (2010) · Journal of Experimental Psychology Applied · doi:10.1037/a0021610 · Cited by 21
Müller, K., Prenzel, M., Seidel, T., Schiepe-Tiska, A., & Kjærnsli, M. (2016) · Methodology of educational measurement and assessment · doi:10.1007/978-3-319-45357-6_17 · Cited by 21
Which one made it go? The emergence of diagnostic reasoning in preschoolers
Fernbach, P. M., Macris, D. M., & Sobel, D. M. (2011) · Cognitive Development · doi:10.1016/j.cogdev.2011.10.002 · Cited by 21
“A general finding of research on scientific reasoning is that school-age children often struggle to recover candidate causes from data (Klahr & Nigam, 2004; Kuhn, Garcia, Zohar, & Andersen, 1995; Kuhn, Pease, & Wirkala, 2009; Lehrer & Schauble, 2000; Ruffman, Perner, Olson, & Doherty, 1993; Sodian,…”
BackgroundZoupidis, A., Pnevmatikos, D., Spyrtou, A., & Καριώτογλου, Π. (2016) · Instructional Science · doi:10.1007/s11251-016-9375-z · Cited by 21
“There is evidence that transfer of CVS acquisition is independent of the approach (explicit instruction or experimentation without explicit instruction) that has been followed (Klahr and Nigam 2004; Strand-Cary and Klahr 2008).”
BackgroundResultInfluentialLearning from Productive Failure
Kapur, M., & Toh, L. P. L. (2015) · Education innovation series · doi:10.1007/978-981-287-521-1_12 · Cited by 21
Modeling Student Learning Behavior Patterns in an Online Science Inquiry Environment
Brenner, D. G., Matlen, B. J., Timms, M. J., Gochyyev, P., Grillo-Hill, A., Luttgen, K., & Varfolomeeva, M. (2017) · Technology Knowledge and Learning · doi:10.1007/s10758-017-9325-0 · Cited by 20
Schiefer, J., Golle, J., Tibus, M., Trautwein, U., & Oschatz, K. (2017) · Contemporary Educational Psychology · doi:10.1016/j.cedpsych.2017.09.011 · Cited by 24
Tangible User Interfaces and Contrasting Cases as a Preparation for Future Learning
Schneider, B., & Blikstein, P. (2018) · Journal of Science Education and Technology · doi:10.1007/s10956-018-9730-8 · Cited by 20
BE COOL! a digital learning environment to challenge and socially include gifted learners
Eysink, T., van Dijk, A. V., & de Jong, T. (2014) · Educational technology research and development · doi:10.1007/s11423-020-09754-9 · Cited by 14
Swan, K. P., Vahey, P., Hooft, M. V. ’., Kratcoski, A., Rafanan, K., Stanford, T., Yarnall, L., & Cook, D. L. (2013) · Interdisciplinary Journal of Problem-based Learning · doi:10.7771/1541-5015.1307 · Cited by 19
Baur, A. (2018) · Zeitschrift für Didaktik der Naturwissenschaften · doi:10.1007/s40573-018-0078-7 · Cited by 23
Teaching Science in Informal Environments: Pedagogical Knowledge for Informal Educators
Tran, L. U., & King, H. (2011) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-90-481-3927-9_16 · Cited by 20
“Without guidance, a learner, and children in particular, may not be able to make sense of an object or piece of content and potentially leave an interaction with an incomplete or incorrect understanding of the intended concept (Crowley et al. 2001; Grandy 1997; King 2009; Klahr and Nigam 2004 ).”
BackgroundIntelligent tutoring systems: a history and an example of an ITS for science
Gobert, J. D., Pedro, M. S., Li, H., & Lott, C. (2022) · Elsevier eBooks · doi:10.1016/b978-0-12-818630-5.10058-2 · Cited by 24
Understanding and managing the complexities in situated learning in immersive virtual environments
Wang, M., Dede, C., Grotzer, T. A., & Chen, J. (2025) · Educational Technology Research and Development · doi:10.1007/s11423-025-10519-5 · Cited by 34
“As noted in relevant literature (Kirschner et al., 2006; Klahr & Nigam, 2004; Mayer, 2004), exploring complex real-world problems may impose a heavy cognitive load on learners, which is detrimental to learning; pure discovery learning with minimal guidance can be less effective than guided inquiry.”
Cohen, M. T. (2008) · OpenCommons - UConn (University of Connecticut) · Cited by 19
Methods courses and texts in psychology: “textbook science” and “tourist brochures”.
Costa, R. E., & Shimp, C. P. (2011) · Journal of Theoretical and Philosophical Psychology · doi:10.1037/a0021575 · Cited by 23
“…2008; Gholson, Shadish, Neimeyer, & Houts, 1989; Gopnik & Schulz, 2007; Gorman, 1992; Gorman, Tweney, Gooding, & Kincannon, 2005; Guba & Lincoln, 2005; Klahr & Nigam, 2004; Kuhn, Amsel, & O’Loughlin, 1988; Mahoney, 1976; Mendelsohn, Weingart, & Whitley, 1977; Merton, 1938/1970; Price, 1961;…”
BackgroundMethodMarley, S. C., & Carbonneau, K. J. (2014) · Educational Psychology Review · doi:10.1007/s10648-014-9259-1 · Cited by 19
“Instead providing moderate to high instructional guidance typically results in improved learning outcomes (Alfieri et al. 2011; Chen and Klahr 1999; Klahr and Nigam 2004).”
BackgroundTeaching Computational Thinking to Multilingual Students through Inquiry-based Learning
Jacob, S. R., Nguyen, H., Garcia, L. Y., Richardson, D. J., & Warschauer, M. (2020) · Research on Equity and Sustained Participation in Engineering, Computing, and Technology (RESPECT) · doi:10.1109/respect49803.2020.9272487 · Cited by 19
Sparks, J. R., & Deane, P. (2015) · ETS Research Report Series · doi:10.1002/ets2.12082 · Cited by 20
What Needs to Be Mastered in Mastery of Scientific Method?
Kuhn, D. (2005) · Psychological Science · doi:10.1111/j.1467-9280.2005.01630.x · Cited by 19
“Klahr and Nigam (2004) did not present data specifically on the transfer of CVS or on its maintenance.1 Chen and Klahr’s (1999) transfer assessment was limited to a written instrument involving a dichotomous choice and hence 50% chance of being correct; moreover, they reported a typical…”
BackgroundIntroducing students to experimental design skills
Szalay, L., Tóth, Z., & Kiss, E. (2019) · Chemistry Education Research and Practice · doi:10.1039/c9rp00234k · Cited by 20
Martin, A. J., Ginns, P., Nagy, R. P., Collie, R. J., & Bostwick, K. C. P. (2023) · Contemporary Educational Psychology · doi:10.1016/j.cedpsych.2023.102147 · Cited by 19
Wong, S. S. H. (2023) · Educational Psychology Review · doi:10.1007/s10648-023-09739-z · Cited by 20
“, 2006), whereas errors are passively allowed to occur naturalistically during exploration in discovery learning (e.g., Alfieri et al., 2011; Bruner, 1961; Kirschner et al., 2006; Klahr and Nigam, 2004).”
BackgroundMaričić, M., Cvjetičanin, S., Anđić, B., Marić, M. R., & Petojević, A. V. (2023) · Journal of Research on Technology in Education · doi:10.1080/15391523.2023.2196460 · Cited by 24
“…independently perform the activity through virtual manipulation of the material, a very small part of free cognitive resources remains for the search for information – answers, which also require the investment of a large part of free cognitive resources (Klahr & Nigam, 2004; Stull & Mayer, 2007).”
Klahr, D. (2005) · Psychological Science · doi:10.1111/j.1467-9280.2005.01629.x · Cited by 18
“Nigam and I (Klahr & Nigam, 2004) demonstrated that children who mastered CVS were better able than others to generate a wide range of valid critiques regarding other children’s sciencefair posters.”
BackgroundSelf-citationA separation of concerns for engineering intelligent support for exploratory learning environments
Gutiérrez-Santos, S., Mavrikis, M., & Magoulas, G. D. (2012) · UCL Discovery (University College London) · Cited by 18
Comparing Pedagogical Approaches for Teaching the Control of Variables Strategy
Beck, J. B., Gobert, J. D., Heffernan, N. T., & Pedro, M. S. (2009) · eScholarship (California Digital Library) · Cited by 18
Sung, J. Y., & Oh, P. S. (2017) · Research in Science Education · doi:10.1007/s11165-016-9589-8 · Cited by 19
Searching for buried treasure: uncovering discovery in discovery-based learning
Chase, K., & Abrahamson, D. (2017) · Instructional Science · doi:10.1007/s11251-017-9433-1 · Cited by 24
“Just how this is accomplished by educators as well as the efficacy of this approach for students is still a matter of debate in the STEM education research literature (Kirschner et al. 2006; Klahr and Nigam 2004).”
BackgroundLin, Z. (2018) · International Journal of Science Education · doi:10.1080/09500693.2018.1429692 · Cited by 18
“…intervention studies examined hands-on inquiry teaching and found that explicitly presenting answers to students leads to better learning results than having students conduct investigations to find the answers (Klahr & Nigam, 2004; Matlen & Klahr, 2013; Renken & Nunez, 2010; Rittle-Johnson, 2006).”
BackgroundResultYerdelen-Damar, S., & Eryılmaz, A. (2019) · Research in Science Education · doi:10.1007/s11165-018-9807-7 · Cited by 21
How do we design for concreteness fading?: survey, general framework, and design dimensions
Suh, S., Lee, M., & Law, E. (2020) · ACM International Conference on Interaction Design and Children (IDC) · doi:10.1145/3392063.3394413 · Cited by 23
“Increasing the concreteness of a concept is closely related to the idea of tell-and-practice, a form of direct instruction [14, 45].”
BackgroundComparisons of Learner-Generated versus Instructor-Provided Multimedia Annotations.
Chen, C.-J., & Liu, P. (2012) · The Turkish Online Journal of Educational Technology · Cited by 18
Girmay, S., Yliniemi, K., Nieminen, M., Linnera, J., & Karttunen, A. J. (2024) · Education for Chemical Engineers · doi:10.1016/j.ece.2024.02.002 · Cited by 37
Teacher Guidance and On‐the‐Fly Scaffolding in Primary School Students' Inquiry Learning
Sasse, H., Weber, A. M., Reuter, T., & Leuchter, M. (2024) · Science Education · doi:10.1002/sce.21921 · Cited by 24
Scaffolding support through integration of learning material
Grévisse, C., Rothkugel, S., & Reuter, R. A. P. (2019) · Smart Learning Environments · doi:10.1186/s40561-019-0107-0 · Cited by 17
“It has been shown that scaffolding is superior to unassisted discovery learning, especially for learners without prior knowledge in a field or topic (Freund 1990; Klahr and Nigam 2004; Alfieri et al. 2011).”
BackgroundA Comprehensive Model of Teaching Digital Design in Architecture that Incorporates Sustainability
Xiang, X., Yang, X., Chen, J., Tang, R., & Hu, L. (2020) · Sustainability · doi:10.3390/su12208368 · Cited by 17
“Klahr and Nigram [58] drew conclusions similar to Chiu.”
BackgroundDo teaching practices and enjoyment of science matter to science achievement?
Long, H., Gao, S., Yang, L., & Jin, C. (2021) · Psychology in the Schools · doi:10.1002/pits.22611 · Cited by 18
An Overview of Inquiry-Based Science Instruction Amid Challenges
Nicol, C. B. (2021) · Eurasia Journal of Mathematics Science and Technology Education · doi:10.29333/ejmste/11350 · Cited by 30
“However, some of its most referenced critics who define it as an “approach in which learners, rather than being presented with essential information, must discover or construct essential information for themselves” (Klahr & Nigam, 2004 p. 1) claim that it imposes cognitive overload on learners.”
BackgroundFlipping the Economics Class in a Teacher Education Course
van Wyk, M. M. (2018) · Technology Knowledge and Learning · doi:10.1007/s10758-018-9377-9 · Cited by 17
“Klahr and Nigam (2004) conducted a study in which they compared the direct instruction method with discovery learning in early science instruction (ESI).”
Moon, J. A., & Brockway, D. (2019) · Journal of Research on Technology in Education · doi:10.1080/15391523.2019.1566038 · Cited by 19
“Some studies have shown that the guidance methods that have been found to benefit young children, such as direct instruction (Klahr & Nigam, 2004), can benefit older learners as well (Sao Pedro, Gobert, Heffernan, & Beck, 2009).”
BackgroundInvestigating the mechanisms of learning from a constrained preparation for future learning activity
Siler, S. A., Klahr, D., & Price, N. (2012) · Instructional Science · doi:10.1007/s11251-012-9224-7 · Cited by 17
Self-citationIssues of inquiry learning in digital learning environments
Chang, C., & Wang, H. (2008) · British Journal of Educational Technology · doi:10.1111/j.1467-8535.2008.00850.x · Cited by 17
“…from teachers did not show any evidence of performing better than other approaches, eg, direct instruction, in terms of subject matters learning, learning transfer in new situations and the acquisition of basic scientific skills (Anderson, Reder & Simon, 1998; Klahr & Nigam, 2004; Mayer, 2004).”
BackgroundSTEM Education in Australia: Impediments and Solutions in Achieving a STEM-Ready Workforce
Bentley, B., Sieben, R., & Unsworth, P. (2022) · Education Sciences · doi:10.3390/educsci12100730 · Cited by 16
Metadata
- Authors
- Klahr, D., & Nigam, M.
- Affiliations
- Carnegie Mellon University (US)
- University of Pittsburgh (US)
- Venue
- Psychological Science
- Publisher
- SAGE Publications
- Published
- 2004-10
- Volume
- 15
- Issue
- 10
- Pages
- 661-667
- ISSN
- 0956-7976 (ISSN-L)
- 1467-9280
- OpenAlex
- W2139559367
- Cited by
- 977
- References
- 35
- Citations by year
- 2026: 28 · 2025: 31 · 2024: 39 · 2023: 36 · 2022: 41 · 2021: 59 · 2020: 59 · 2019: 45 · 2018: 63 · 2017: 53 · 2016: 64 · 2015: 49 · 2014: 49 · 2013: 50 · 2012: 69
- FWCI
- 115.71
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- green
- doi.org
- Locations
- Psychological Science (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- Figshare (submittedVersion)
- KiltHub Repository
- Funders
- Eunice Kennedy Shriver National Institute of Child Health and Human Development (R01HD025211)
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Education › Science Education and Pedagogy
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Experimental and Cognitive Psychology › Visual and Cognitive Learning Processes
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Developmental and Educational Psychology › Innovative Teaching and Learning Methods
- Keywords
- discovery learning, direct instruction, early childhood science education, elementary school students, experimental design, transfer of learning, scientific reasoning, learning trajectories, teaching effectiveness
- MeSH terms
- Achievement, Child, Female, Humans, Learning, Male, Science, Teaching
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Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.
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