The DOI matches its Crossref record; 33 of the 35 references it cites were found in a registry or an index; 1 of the 14 sources its claims cite were checked for support.
The Equivalence of Learning Paths in Early Science Instruction: Effects of Direct Instruction and Discovery Learning
Open accessAbstract
In a study with 112 third- and fourth-grade children, we measured the relative effectiveness of discovery learning and direct instruction at two points in the learning process: (a) during the initial acquisition of the basic cognitive objective (a procedure for designing and interpreting simple, unconfounded experiments) and (b) during the subsequent transfer and application of this basic skill to more diffuse and authentic reasoning associated with the evaluation of science-fair posters. We found not only that many more children learned from direct instruction than from discovery learning, but also that when asked to make broader, richer scientific judgments, the many children who learned about experimental design from direct instruction performed as well as those few children who discovered the method on their own. These results challenge predictions derived from the presumed superiority of discovery approaches in teaching young children basic procedures for early scientific investigations.
Overview
Integrity signals
Registry
Cites
Statistics
Verification
Claims the paper makes
7 Own result · 6 No full text of the sources · 6 Own method · 2 Own interpretation · 1 Partly supported · 1 Sources not found · 1 Not checked yet · accuracy not yet measured
The cited sources support only part of this claim — read each source’s verdict below.
In the paper
“When the direct-instruction procedure was adapted from an experimental script to a lesson plan implemented in a classroom setting, mean CVS performance increased from 30% prior to instruction to 96% following instruction (Toth, Klahr, & Chen, 2000).”
§ The Equivalence of Learning Paths in Early Science Instruction Effects of Direct Instruction and Discovery Learning > Abstract
What the sources say
- Partly supportedcites Toth, Klahr, & Chen, 2000 sourceExperimental — accuracy not yet measured
The CVS Performance section reports that mean performance in individual interviews increased from 30% before instruction to 97% after instruction, not 96%. The classroom-worksheet analysis also reports 97% after instruction, but its preinstruction figure is 58%. (LLM, conf=0.90)
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
- Partly supported
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The results, shown in Table 2, replicated the pattern for the grand poster score: Experts and masters outperformed nonmasters, regardless of the learning paths.”
§ The Equivalence of Learning Paths in Early Science Instruction Effects of Direct Instruction and Discovery Learning > Day 2: Poster Evaluations
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Table 2 shows that experts, discovery masters, and direct-instruction masters had higher grand poster scores than discovery nonmasters and direct-instruction nonmasters, d 5 0.83.”
§ The Equivalence of Learning Paths in Early Science Instruction Effects of Direct Instruction and Discovery Learning > Day 2: Poster Evaluations
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Forty of the 52 direct-instruction children (77%) became masters, whereas only 12 of the 52 discovery children (23%) did so, w 2 (1, N 5 104) 5 28.0, p < .0001(with Yates correction).”
§ The Equivalence of Learning Paths in Early Science Instruction Effects of Direct Instruction and Discovery Learning > Day 1: CVS Exploration and Assessment
plaindirectn = 52- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Moreover, there were no statistical differences among the grand poster scores for experts, discovery masters, and direct-instruction masters.”
§ The Equivalence of Learning Paths in Early Science Instruction Effects of Direct Instruction and Discovery Learning > Day 2: Poster Evaluations
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“We found not only that many more children learned from direct instruction than from discovery learning, but also that when asked to make broader, richer scientific judgments, the many children who learned about experimental design from direct instruction performed as well as those few children who discovered the method on their own.”
- Also stated in: § Day 1: CVS Exploration and Assessment · plain
“direct instruction produced many more masters than did discovery learning.”
- Also stated in: § DISCUSSION · boosted
“these results replicate other studies in which direct instruction was clearly superior to discovery learning in facilitating children's acquisition of CVS”
§ The Equivalence of Learning Paths in Early Science Instruction Effects of Direct Instruction and Discovery Learning > Abstract
boosteddirectn = 112- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
- Also stated in: § Day 1: CVS Exploration and Assessment · plain
In the paper
“Chen and Klahr (1999) demonstrated that direct instruction on CVS led to statistically and educationally significant improvement in children's ability to design simple, unconfounded experiments.”
§ The Equivalence of Learning Paths in Early Science Instruction Effects of Direct Instruction and Discovery Learning > Abstract
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Chen and Klahr (1999) source
boosteddirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Children who became masters via direct instruction were as skilled at evaluating science-fair posters as were discovery-learning masters and experts.”
- Also stated in: § Day 2: Poster Evaluations · plain
“In other words, the grand poster scores of the three groups that achieved high levels of CVS performance via different paths were indistinguishable.”
§ The Equivalence of Learning Paths in Early Science Instruction Effects of Direct Instruction and Discovery Learning > DISCUSSION
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
- Rests on an assumption: The two science-fair posters used in the transfer task are highly imperfect and thus afford wide-ranging evaluations.
- Also stated in: § Day 2: Poster Evaluations · plain
In the paper
“Moreover, students receiving direct instruction were superior to control students on a far-transfer test of experimental design administered 7 months later.”
§ The Equivalence of Learning Paths in Early Science Instruction Effects of Direct Instruction and Discovery Learning > Abstract
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Chen and Klahr (1999) source
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“These results challenge predictions derived from the presumed superiority of discovery approaches in teaching young children basic procedures for early scientific investigations.”
§ The Equivalence of Learning Paths in Early Science Instruction Effects of Direct Instruction and Discovery Learning > Abstract
plainn = 112- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
- It may state two separate claims as one. 6
- Probably not a substantial claim. 9
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“CVS scores for direct-instruction children increased dramatically from exploration to assessment: from 1.0 to 3.1, t(51) 5 10.5, p < .0001,d 5 1.73 (see Fig. 3).Scores for children in the discovery condition also increased, but much less: from 0.6 to 1.5, t(51) 5 5.3, p < .0001,d 5 0.725.”
§ The Equivalence of Learning Paths in Early Science Instruction Effects of Direct Instruction and Discovery Learning > Day 1: CVS Exploration and Assessment
plaindirectn = 104- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The grand poster scores of the two groups who failed to master CVS were also indis-tinguishable, but significantly lower than the scores of the three high-CVS-score groups.”
§ The Equivalence of Learning Paths in Early Science Instruction Effects of Direct Instruction and Discovery Learning > Day 2: Poster Evaluations
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“Finally, most developmental and cognitive theories predict that many of the phenomena associated with discovery learning would make it a relatively ineffective instructional method (Mayer, 2004).”
§ The Equivalence of Learning Paths in Early Science Instruction Effects of Direct Instruction and Discovery Learning > Abstract
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Mayer, 2004 source
hedgeddirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim.
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“Empirical challenges come from studies demonstrating that teacher-centered methods using direct instruction are highly effective (cf.Brophy & Good, 1986;Rosenshine & Stevens, 1986), particularly for teaching multistep procedures that students are unlikely to discover on their own, such as those involved in geometry, algebra, and computer programming (Anderson, Corbett, Koedinger, & Pelletier, 1995”
§ The Equivalence of Learning Paths in Early Science Instruction Effects of Direct Instruction and Discovery Learning > Abstract
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites Brophy & Good, 1986
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
- Not matchedcites Rosenshine & Stevens, 1986
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Anderson, Corbett, Koedinger, & Pelletier, 1995 source
boosteddirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim.
- Not matched
None of the sources cited for this claim could be matched to a paper in Crossref, so there is nothing to check it against.
In the paper
“CVS mastery is considered a central instructional objective from a wide variety of educational perspectives (DeBoer, 1991;Duschl, 1990;Murnane & Raizen, 1988;National Research Council, 1995).”
§ The Equivalence of Learning Paths in Early Science Instruction Effects of Direct Instruction and Discovery Learning > Abstract
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites DeBoer, 1991
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
- Not matchedcites Duschl, 1990
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
- Not matchedcites Murnane & Raizen, 1988
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Not matched
In the paper
“For children receiving direct instruction, mean performance on CVS increased in the psychology lab from 40% correct prior to instruction to 80% correct following instruction, whereas children in the discoverylearning condition showed no significant improvement.”
§ The Equivalence of Learning Paths in Early Science Instruction Effects of Direct Instruction and Discovery Learning > Abstract
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Chen and Klahr (1999) source
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“For example, children in discovery situations are more likely than those receiving direct instruction to encounter inconsistent or misleading feedback, to make encoding errors and causal misattributions, and to experience inadequate practice and elaboration.”
§ The Equivalence of Learning Paths in Early Science Instruction Effects of Direct Instruction and Discovery Learning > Abstract
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Mayer, 2004 source
hedgeddirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. It may state two separate claims as one.
What the paper did — it cites no source for this, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Children from both grades at each school were randomly assigned to either the direct-instruction condition or the discovery-learning condition.”
§ The Equivalence of Learning Paths in Early Science Instruction Effects of Direct Instruction and Discovery Learning > METHOD
plainn = 112- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim.
What the paper did — it cites no source for this, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“During the assessment phase, the experimenter did not provide any feedback in either condition.”
§ The Equivalence of Learning Paths in Early Science Instruction Effects of Direct Instruction and Discovery Learning > METHOD
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
What the paper did — it cites no source for this, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“It is important to note that in our operationalization, the difference between direct instruction and discovery learning does not involve a difference between ''active'' and ''passive'' learning.In both conditions, students were actively engaged in the design of their experiments and the physical manipulation of the apparatus.”
§ The Equivalence of Learning Paths in Early Science Instruction Effects of Direct Instruction and Discovery Learning > METHOD
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
What the paper did — it cites no source for this, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“A different experimenter (blind to training condition) asked all children to evaluate two science-fair posters”
§ The Equivalence of Learning Paths in Early Science Instruction Effects of Direct Instruction and Discovery Learning > METHOD
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim.
What the paper did — it cites no source for this, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Children's responses were transcribed from audiotape and coded independently by two coders.(There was 83% agreement between coders on what constituted a valid critique.)”
§ The Equivalence of Learning Paths in Early Science Instruction Effects of Direct Instruction and Discovery Learning > METHOD
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. It may state two separate claims as one.
What the paper did — it cites no source for this, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Children were assessed individually, and the order of poster presentation was counterbalanced.”
§ The Equivalence of Learning Paths in Early Science Instruction Effects of Direct Instruction and Discovery Learning > METHOD
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
The paper relies on this without support.
The operationalized direct-instruction and discovery-learning conditions adequately represent the two instructional approaches despite the lack of a consistent definition of discovery learning.
“However, at the outset, we faced a difficult definitional problem because nearly 100 years of research (cf.Winch, 1913) had yet to produce a consistent definition of discovery learning.foot_0Therefore, we intentionally magnified the difference between the two instructional treatments in order to provide a strong test of the pathindependent transfer hypothesis.”
The paper relies on this without support.
The two science-fair posters used in the transfer task are highly imperfect and thus afford wide-ranging evaluations.
“An important feature of these posters is that they described highly imperfect experiments, thus affording opportunities for wide-ranging evaluations.”
Claims other papers make about this one
Each is checked against this paper’s own text: does it say what the citing paper says it does?
The source backs part of the claim, not all of it — or backs it for a different population, condition or comparison.
In the citing paper
“Discovery learning approaches typically do not have positive academic outcomes when compared with more traditional direct instruction (Klahr, 2004; Mayer, 2004).”
From Montessori education's impact on academic and nonacademic outcomes: A systematic review (2023) · cites this paper as Klahr, 2004
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredThe source backs part of the claim, not all of it — or backs it for a different population, condition or comparison.
In the citing paper
“The work of Klahr and Nigam (2004), discussed earlier, unambiguously demonstrated the advantages of direct instruction in science.”
From Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work: An Analysis of the Failure of Constructivist, Discovery, Problem-Based, Experiential, and Inquiry-Based Teaching (2006) · cites this paper as Klahr & Nigam, 2004
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredThe cited source says what the claim attributes to it.
In the citing paper
“Direct instruction involving considerable guidance, including examples, resulted in vastly more learning than discovery.”
From Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work: An Analysis of the Failure of Constructivist, Discovery, Problem-Based, Experiential, and Inquiry-Based Teaching (2006) · cites this paper as Klahr & Nigam, 2004
The cited source says what the claim attributes to it.
In the citing paper
“Those relatively few students who learned via discovery showed no signs of superior quality of learning.”
From Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work: An Analysis of the Failure of Constructivist, Discovery, Problem-Based, Experiential, and Inquiry-Based Teaching (2006) · cites this paper as Klahr & Nigam, 2004
Citations
Cites
Handbook of research on teaching
Wittrock, M. C. (1986) · Bibliothèque et Archives nationales du Québec (Québec government) · Cited by 10,630
National Science Education Standards
Shea, J. H. (1995) · Journal of Geological Education · doi:10.5408/0022-1368-43.2.102 · Cited by 7,888
Should There Be a Three-Strikes Rule Against Pure Discovery Learning?
Mayer, R. E. (2004) · American Psychologist · doi:10.1037/0003-066x.59.1.14 · Cited by 2,527
Piaget, J. (1976) · Piaget and His School · doi:10.1007/978-3-642-46323-5_2 · Cited by 2,167
Carmichael's Manual of Child Psychology
Sigel, I. E., & Mussen, P. H. (1972) · American Educational Research Journal · doi:10.2307/1161696 · Cited by 2,053
Cognitive Tutors: Lessons Learned
Anderson, J. R., Corbett, A. T., Koedinger, K. R., & Pelletier, R. (1995) · Journal of the Learning Sciences · doi:10.1207/s15327809jls0402_2 · Cited by 1,982
Emerging minds: the process of change in children's thinking
(1997) · Choice Reviews Online · doi:10.5860/choice.34-5984 · Cited by 1,132
Pairwise Multiple Comparison Procedures with Unequal N’s and/or Variances: A Monte Carlo Study
Games, P. A., & Howell, J. F. (1976) · Journal of Educational Statistics · doi:10.3102/10769986001002113 · Cited by 926
All Other Things Being Equal: Acquisition and Transfer of the Control of Variables Strategy
Chen, Z., & Klahr, D. (1999) · Child Development · doi:10.1111/1467-8624.00081 · Cited by 736
Self-citationA history of ideas in science education: implications for practice
(1991) · Choice Reviews Online · doi:10.5860/choice.29-0433 · Cited by 520
Research works printed but not linked: 9
- Duschl R.A., 1990, Restructuring science education
- Klahr D., 2001, Designing for science: Implications from everyday, classroom, and professional settings, 209
- Korpan C.A., 1994, Assessing scientific literacy: A taxonomy for classifying questions and knowledge about scientific research
- Loveless T., 1998, Education policy, 285
- 1995, National Research Council
- Rosenshine B., 1986, Handbook of research on teaching, 376
- 10.1002/(SICI)1098-2736(199601)33:1<101::AID-TEA6>3.0.CO;2-Z · DOI
- Winch W.A., 1913, Inductive versus deductive methods of teaching
- Zimmerman C., 1998, Alberta Journal of Educational Research, 44, 188
Cited by
Sorted by citations
Items 801–900 of 917
How Inquiry Could Contribute to the Prepared Mind [With Response]
Bybee, R. W., Heppner, F. L., Kouttab, K., et al. (2006) · The American Biology Teacher · doi:10.2307/4452041
Donnelly-Hermosillo, D. F. (2011) · Arrow@dit (Dublin Institute of Technology) · doi:10.34961/5625
The effect of different presentation strategies with educational software
Shamir, H., & Vanous, S. (2007) · Annual Conference on Computers
Secondary Science Teachers' and Students' Beliefs about Engaging in Whole-Class Discussions
Pimentel, D. S. (2012) · ProQuest LLC eBooks
JUMP Math in grade four classrooms
Garforth, K. C. (2013) · cIRcle (University of British Columbia) · doi:10.14288/1.0073567
Pitz, G. F. (2011) · Contemporary Psychology · doi:10.1037/a0024593
Pedagogy of Constructivism: From Idea to Technology
Бершадский, & Евгеньевич, Б. М. (2014) · Profession-oriented School · doi:10.12737/4322
AC 2012-5110: USE OF SUPPLEMENTARY ONLINE LECTURE MATE- RIALS IN A HEAT TRANSFER COURSE
Lemley, E. C., & Jassemnejad, B. (2012)
Heuser, R. R. (2012) · SHAREOK (University of Oklahoma; Oklahoma State University; Central Oklahoma University)
A novel teaching strategy IDRC for enhancing creativity
Kwei-Liang, T., & Sung, H. Y.-T. (2008) · International Conference on Web-based Education
Learning Interests with Talking Drawing Strategy of Inclusive Primary School Students in Surakarta
Sari, E. K. (2016) · Proceeding of International Conference on Teacher Training and Education
Ghosh, R. (2015) · OhioLink ETD Center (Ohio Library and Information Network)
Bergstrom, C. M. (2013) · Scholarship & Creative Works - Digital UNC a service of University Libraries (University of Northern Colorado)
Would You Do Your Homework for a Chance to Improve Your Quiz Score?
Zimmerman, K. J. (2014) · doi:10.12794/metadc799490
“…& Omness, 1990; Tudor & Bostow, 1991), Direct Instruction (DI; Becker & Gersten, 1982; Gettinger, 1993; Hicks, Bethune, Wood, Cooke, & Mims, 2011; Klahr & Nigam, 2004), and interteaching (Boyce & Hineline, 2002; Saville, Zinn, & Elliott, 2005; Saville & Zinn, 2006; Saville & Zinn, 2009; Sheppard…”
Offshoring and Audit Reviewer EffectivenessPreprint
Hodge, F. D., & Ikuta, K. (2016) · SSRN Electronic Journal · doi:10.2139/ssrn.2864011
Chase, K. (2016) · eScholarship (California Digital Library)
The Operating Room as a Classroom: a New Approach to Skills Assessment and Training in Surgery
Bonrath, E. M. (2015) · TSpace (University of Toronto)
The Effects Of Science Inquiry In A Fourth Grade Classroom
Luke, S. (2006) · Journal of International Crisis and Risk Communication Research
The Effect of Scaffolded Causal Identification in the Transfer of Experimental Design Skills.
Siler, S. A., Klahr, D., Willows, K., et al. (2011) · Society for Research on Educational Effectiveness
Self-citationA Re-Examination of the Argument against Problem-Based Learning in the Classroom.
Bryant, L. H. (2011) · Journal of research in education
One or more external representations: What is better for learning?
Ermakova, A. V. (2016)
Baek, J. (2016) · Journal of The Korean Association For Science Education · doi:10.14697/jkase.2016.36.6.0867
“이러한 교실의 환경은 학생들로 하여금 매우 혼란스러운 상황에서 정답만을 찾고자 하는 태도를 갖게 하고, 최종 적으로 문제해결을 통한 학습을 방해한다는 것이다(Hug & McNeill, 2008; Klahr & Nigam, 2004; Kirschner et al., 2006).”
Huang, J. X. (2017) · TSpace (University of Toronto)
Challenging A Traditional Social Norm In A Second Grade Mathematics Classroom
Egendoerfer, L. A. (2006) · Journal of International Crisis and Risk Communication Research
Young Children’s Exploration of Science in Object Play and Teachers’ Plans for Educational Support
Baik, E. (2017) · Korean Journal of Child Studies · doi:10.5723/kjcs.2017.38.4.49
“다음으로, 자동차 놀이에서 연구참여자들은 구조적이거나 체계적이지는 못하지만(Dean & Kuhn, 2007; Klahr & Nigam, 2004), 과학자들처럼 나름의 가설을 세우고 변인을 통제하는 모습을 보였다(Gopnik, 2012).”
The Use of Direct and Indirect Teaching Strategies: An Evaluative Case Study
ÖZDEMİR, M., & KILIÇ, D. (2017) · Cumhuriyet International Journal of Education · doi:10.30703/cije.333886
“…incelendiği ve olumlu sonuçlar elde edildiği birçok çalışma mevcuttur (Akel Oğuz, 2012; Blair, Rupley & Nichols, 2007; Din, 2000; Duffy 2002; Klahr & Nigam, 2004; Kousar, 2010; Madariagana, Martinez & Goni, 2010; Ness, 2011; Pechous, 2012; Peters, 2011; Rupley, Blair & Nichols, 2009;…”
Simsalabim**—Simulation in (Orthopaedic) training
Friederich, N. F. (2018) · Journal of Arthroscopy and Joint Surgery · doi:10.1016/j.jajs.2018.01.004
Eine Analyse von Interaktionsmustern für mobiles forschendes Lernen
Specht, M. M., & Suárez, Á. (2018) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-3-658-19123-8_18
Recall of physics knowledge: direct instruction versus collaborative learning
Chia, K. P. (2017) · UWA Profiles and Research Repository (UWA) · doi:10.4225/23/5a8a30b45b7ce
Wang, J. Y.-M. (2018) · University of Minnesota Digital Conservancy (University of Minnesota)
Kim, H., & Yu, S.-B. (2018) · Journal of Fisheries and Marine Sciences Education · doi:10.13000/jfmse.2018.10.30.5.1703
Bevins, S., Lehane, L., & Booth, J. E. (2019) · Advances in educational technologies and instructional design book series · doi:10.4018/978-1-5225-5439-4.ch012
Investigating Learning in an Intelligent Tutoring System through Randomized Controlled Experiments
Razzaq, L. M. (2009) · Digital WPI
A model for incrementally transforming the science classroom from traditional instruction to inquiry
Jerome, T. M. (2006) · CSUSB ScholarWorks (California State University, San Bernardino)
Frei, F. (2019) · Educação Matemática Pesquisa Revista do Programa de Estudos Pós-Graduados em Educação Matemática · doi:10.23925/1983-3156.2018v21i2p187-201
Nugent, M. L. (2019) · NCSU Libraries Repository (North Carolina State University Libraries)
PENERAPAN DISCOVERYLEARNING PADA MEDIA PEMBELAJARAN DENGAN MATERI VEKTOR BERBASIS FLASH
Siregar, S. D., Indriama, D., Mendrofa, S. B. H., et al. (2019) · Jurnal Mantik Penusa
Irawati, I., Raja, P., & Nainggolan, F. (2020) · U-JET
Improved student outcomes through use of direct instruction in the laboratory
Heneghan, M. A., Cronin, M. S., & McCabe, A. (2020) · International Journal of Research Studies in Education · doi:10.5861/ijrse.2020.5037
Woolcott, G. (2020) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-981-15-7051-3_5
Cognitive Development: Mathematics Learning and Instruction
Thompson, C. A., & Booth, J. L. (2015) · Elsevier eBooks · doi:10.1016/b978-0-08-097086-8.92146-9
Reconceptualizing Symbolic Magnitude Estimation Training Using Non-declarative Learning Techniques
Graham, E. N., & Was, C. A. (2021) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2021.638004
“, 2006) and lead to harmful misconceptions (Klahr and Nigam, 2004; Kirschner et al., 2006).”
BackgroundFrom “Customer” to “Partner”: Approaches to Conceptualization of Student-University Relationships
Maloshonok, N., & Щеглова, И. А. (2021) · University development and administration · doi:10.1007/978-981-13-3364-4_4-1 · Cited by 1
Andrikopoulou, E., & Skoumios, M. (2021) · International Journal of Research in Education and Science · doi:10.46328/ijres.2398
Ehlert, L. (2021) · Logos Verlag Berlin eBooks · doi:10.30819/5393
Seiler, F. (2021) · Logos Verlag Berlin eBooks · doi:10.30819/5397
What initial information should I know to teach science?
(2021) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/9781108868419.003
Psychology in Teacher Education
Narciss, S., & Zumbach, J. (2022) · Springer international handbooks of education · doi:10.1007/978-3-030-26248-8_68-1
You, H. S. (2022) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-981-16-9142-3_12
Learning efficacy and user acceptance of a game-based social skills learning environment
Tan, J. L. (2013) · DR-NTU (Nanyang Technological University) · doi:10.32657/10356/53394
Learning theories related to early childhood science education
Campbell, C. (2021) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/9781108868419.007
Frei, F., & Santiago, G. L. A. (2022) · Jornal Internacional de Estudos em Educação Matemática · doi:10.17921/2176-5634.2022v15n1p62-70
“O método do aprendizado da descoberta é fundamentado no conceito de que o conhecimento que os alunos encontram por si mesmos tem mais valor do que o conhecimento que foi puramente explicado (Klahr & Nigam, 2004).”
BackgroundAçık Uçlu Madde Örnekleriyle Hipotez Kurma ve Deney Planlama Becerilerinin Değerlendirilmesi
HASSAMANCIOĞLU, U., & Kurnaz, F. B. (2022) · Milli Eğitim Dergisi · doi:10.37669/milliegitim.990089
Zagreb, E. F., Vlašić, G., Gugić, A., & Šubić, R. (2022) · Ekonomska misao i praksa · doi:10.17818/emip/2022/2.11
Teaching and learning theoretical content
Goosen, L. (2022) · African Sun Media eBooks · doi:10.52779/9781991201799/08
Akuma, F. V., & Gaigher, E. (2023) · South African Journal of Education · doi:10.15700/saje.v43n1a2132
“Although IBSE is widely regarded as an efficient way to promote critical thinking and scientific literacy, some studies indicate that this strategy is less effective than the direct instructional strategy (Klahr & Nigam, 2004).”
Gupta, S. (2023) · Advances in mobile and distance learning book series · doi:10.4018/978-1-6684-4533-4.ch019
Vilhar, B., & Krajšek, S. S. (2010) · Acta Biologica Slovenica · doi:10.14720/abs.53.2.15511
From talking the talk to walking the walk
den Boer, A. C. L. (2023) · doi:10.5463/thesis.348
Research Evidence of Children Playing and Learning to Investigate
Moeed, A., Dobson, S. R., & Saha, S. (2023) · Springer briefs in education · doi:10.1007/978-981-99-7286-9_4
Carvalho, P. F., & Godwin, K. E. (2024) · doi:10.31234/osf.io/5uac6
The Debate Between Inquiry Learning and Direct Instruction: What Should Count as Evidence?
Chinn, C. A., Hussain‐Abidi, H., Kalu-Mamji, H., et al. (2023) · Proceedings. · doi:10.22318/icls2023.103493
A Qualitative Case Study: Pre-service Teachers as Novice Programmers
Şener, B., & Umutlu, D. (2024) · Journal of Computer and Education Research · doi:10.18009/jcer.1435182
Correa, R. A., Melo, H. E., García, J. C., et al. (2024) · Revista Iberoamericana de Psicología · doi:10.33881/2027-1786.rip.17102
(2024) · Royal Society of Chemistry eBooks · doi:10.1039/9781839163272-00093
Zavala-Yoé, R., Urriza-Arellano, B. A., López-Caudana, E. O., & Ramírez-Mendoza, R. A. (2025) · Frontiers in Education · doi:10.3389/feduc.2025.1493903
Crafting Evidence-Based Academic Presentations: Practical Guidelines for Medical Science Educators
Green, E. P. (2025) · Medical Science Educator · doi:10.1007/s40670-025-02452-2
Teaching Methods Shape Expectations, but Performance Determines Human Trust in Robot Learners
Chi, V. B., & Malle, B. F. (2025) · IEEE RO-MAN · doi:10.1109/ro-man63969.2025.11217567
Swartz, B., Wolmarans, N., Mogashana, D., et al. (2025) · World Engineering Education Forum - Global Engineering Deans Council (WEEF-GEDC) · doi:10.1109/weef-gedc66748.2025.11256218
(2015) · Emerald Group Publishing Limited eBooks · doi:10.1108/978-1-68123-136-520251015
(2011) · Emerald Group Publishing Limited eBooks · doi:10.1108/978-1-61735-486-120251013
Teaching and Learning in Schools in Europe
van der Werf, G. P. C. (2011) · Emerald Group Publishing Limited eBooks · doi:10.1108/978-1-61735-486-120251017
Implications of Game Use for Explicit Instruction
Jin, P., & Low, R. (2011) · Emerald Group Publishing Limited eBooks · doi:10.1108/978-1-61735-410-620251019
Linking The History Of The “Project Method” To Current Pbi Movements
(2023) · Emerald Group Publishing Limited eBooks · doi:10.1108/979-8-88730-369-720251003
Freer, B. D., Lorch, E. P., Lorch, R. F., et al. (2011) · Society for Research on Educational Effectiveness
Robinson, S. R. (2012) · Digital Commons (Liberty University)
McCandless, K. L. (2015) · USF Scholarship Repository (University of San Francisco)
Learning in complex tasks: A comparison of cognitvie load and dual space theories.
Howe, A. (2013) · UPT. Syiah Kuala University Library (Syiah Kuala University)
Scientific reasoning in upper primary school students: development and validation of the ESRQ
Chionas, G., & Emvalotis, A. (2025) · Research in Science & Technological Education · doi:10.1080/02635143.2025.2606400 · Cited by 1
Güler, T. (2025) · Anadolu Kültürel Araştırmalar Dergisi · doi:10.63556/ankad.v9i4.320
Teaching Strategies in Mathematics: A Meta-Analysis
Dublin, J. R. (2026) · Psychology and Education A Multidisciplinary Journal · doi:10.70838/pemj.510505
Gürler, S. A., KANMAZ, T., & Kurupınar, A. (2026) · Milli Eğitim Dergisi · doi:10.37669/milliegitim.1544474
Fernandez, J. (2017) · theses.fr (ABES) · doi:10.70675/c7ad77ddz9976z4beeza5b9zd163df512099
Metadata
- Authors
- Klahr, D., & Nigam, M.
- Affiliations
- Carnegie Mellon University (US)
- University of Pittsburgh (US)
- Venue
- Psychological Science
- Publisher
- SAGE Publications
- Published
- 2004-10
- Volume
- 15
- Issue
- 10
- Pages
- 661-667
- ISSN
- 0956-7976 (ISSN-L)
- 1467-9280
- OpenAlex
- W2139559367
- Cited by
- 977
- References
- 35
- Citations by year
- 2026: 28 · 2025: 31 · 2024: 39 · 2023: 36 · 2022: 41 · 2021: 59 · 2020: 59 · 2019: 45 · 2018: 63 · 2017: 53 · 2016: 64 · 2015: 49 · 2014: 49 · 2013: 50 · 2012: 69
- FWCI
- 115.71
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- green
- doi.org
- Locations
- Psychological Science (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- Figshare (submittedVersion)
- KiltHub Repository
- Funders
- Eunice Kennedy Shriver National Institute of Child Health and Human Development (R01HD025211)
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Education › Science Education and Pedagogy
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Experimental and Cognitive Psychology › Visual and Cognitive Learning Processes
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Developmental and Educational Psychology › Innovative Teaching and Learning Methods
- Keywords
- discovery learning, direct instruction, early childhood science education, elementary school students, experimental design, transfer of learning, scientific reasoning, learning trajectories, teaching effectiveness
- MeSH terms
- Achievement, Child, Female, Humans, Learning, Male, Science, Teaching
About these checks
Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.
A language model drew the claims from the paper on 2026-10-11, under version 3 of the claim definition (model deepseek-v4.1-flash, prompt extract-v3).
A second model labelled each claim on 2026-10-11 (model jev-1.13-20260917, definition revision gold-guideline-v0.2).
Cited sources are checked with a language model’s help (gpt-6-sol).
Statistics and arithmetic are recomputed, not judged.
Confidence bands are shown only for fields calibrated on our annotated test set. None is calibrated yet, so no band is shown.
What counts as a claim ›How we measure confidence ›How we check this ›
Are you an author, or do you see a problem with this page? Request a review
