The DOI matches its Crossref record; 33 of the 35 references it cites were found in a registry or an index; 1 of the 14 sources its claims cite were checked for support.
The Equivalence of Learning Paths in Early Science Instruction: Effects of Direct Instruction and Discovery Learning
Open accessAbstract
In a study with 112 third- and fourth-grade children, we measured the relative effectiveness of discovery learning and direct instruction at two points in the learning process: (a) during the initial acquisition of the basic cognitive objective (a procedure for designing and interpreting simple, unconfounded experiments) and (b) during the subsequent transfer and application of this basic skill to more diffuse and authentic reasoning associated with the evaluation of science-fair posters. We found not only that many more children learned from direct instruction than from discovery learning, but also that when asked to make broader, richer scientific judgments, the many children who learned about experimental design from direct instruction performed as well as those few children who discovered the method on their own. These results challenge predictions derived from the presumed superiority of discovery approaches in teaching young children basic procedures for early scientific investigations.
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Claims the paper makes
7 Own result · 6 No full text of the sources · 6 Own method · 2 Own interpretation · 1 Partly supported · 1 Sources not found · 1 Not checked yet · accuracy not yet measured
The cited sources support only part of this claim — read each source’s verdict below.
In the paper
“When the direct-instruction procedure was adapted from an experimental script to a lesson plan implemented in a classroom setting, mean CVS performance increased from 30% prior to instruction to 96% following instruction (Toth, Klahr, & Chen, 2000).”
§ The Equivalence of Learning Paths in Early Science Instruction Effects of Direct Instruction and Discovery Learning > Abstract
What the sources say
- Partly supportedcites Toth, Klahr, & Chen, 2000 sourceExperimental — accuracy not yet measured
The CVS Performance section reports that mean performance in individual interviews increased from 30% before instruction to 97% after instruction, not 96%. The classroom-worksheet analysis also reports 97% after instruction, but its preinstruction figure is 58%. (LLM, conf=0.90)
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
- Partly supported
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The results, shown in Table 2, replicated the pattern for the grand poster score: Experts and masters outperformed nonmasters, regardless of the learning paths.”
§ The Equivalence of Learning Paths in Early Science Instruction Effects of Direct Instruction and Discovery Learning > Day 2: Poster Evaluations
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Table 2 shows that experts, discovery masters, and direct-instruction masters had higher grand poster scores than discovery nonmasters and direct-instruction nonmasters, d 5 0.83.”
§ The Equivalence of Learning Paths in Early Science Instruction Effects of Direct Instruction and Discovery Learning > Day 2: Poster Evaluations
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Forty of the 52 direct-instruction children (77%) became masters, whereas only 12 of the 52 discovery children (23%) did so, w 2 (1, N 5 104) 5 28.0, p < .0001(with Yates correction).”
§ The Equivalence of Learning Paths in Early Science Instruction Effects of Direct Instruction and Discovery Learning > Day 1: CVS Exploration and Assessment
plaindirectn = 52- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Moreover, there were no statistical differences among the grand poster scores for experts, discovery masters, and direct-instruction masters.”
§ The Equivalence of Learning Paths in Early Science Instruction Effects of Direct Instruction and Discovery Learning > Day 2: Poster Evaluations
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“We found not only that many more children learned from direct instruction than from discovery learning, but also that when asked to make broader, richer scientific judgments, the many children who learned about experimental design from direct instruction performed as well as those few children who discovered the method on their own.”
- Also stated in: § Day 1: CVS Exploration and Assessment · plain
“direct instruction produced many more masters than did discovery learning.”
- Also stated in: § DISCUSSION · boosted
“these results replicate other studies in which direct instruction was clearly superior to discovery learning in facilitating children's acquisition of CVS”
§ The Equivalence of Learning Paths in Early Science Instruction Effects of Direct Instruction and Discovery Learning > Abstract
boosteddirectn = 112- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
- Also stated in: § Day 1: CVS Exploration and Assessment · plain
In the paper
“Chen and Klahr (1999) demonstrated that direct instruction on CVS led to statistically and educationally significant improvement in children's ability to design simple, unconfounded experiments.”
§ The Equivalence of Learning Paths in Early Science Instruction Effects of Direct Instruction and Discovery Learning > Abstract
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Chen and Klahr (1999) source
boosteddirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Children who became masters via direct instruction were as skilled at evaluating science-fair posters as were discovery-learning masters and experts.”
- Also stated in: § Day 2: Poster Evaluations · plain
“In other words, the grand poster scores of the three groups that achieved high levels of CVS performance via different paths were indistinguishable.”
§ The Equivalence of Learning Paths in Early Science Instruction Effects of Direct Instruction and Discovery Learning > DISCUSSION
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
- Rests on an assumption: The two science-fair posters used in the transfer task are highly imperfect and thus afford wide-ranging evaluations.
- Also stated in: § Day 2: Poster Evaluations · plain
In the paper
“Moreover, students receiving direct instruction were superior to control students on a far-transfer test of experimental design administered 7 months later.”
§ The Equivalence of Learning Paths in Early Science Instruction Effects of Direct Instruction and Discovery Learning > Abstract
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Chen and Klahr (1999) source
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“These results challenge predictions derived from the presumed superiority of discovery approaches in teaching young children basic procedures for early scientific investigations.”
§ The Equivalence of Learning Paths in Early Science Instruction Effects of Direct Instruction and Discovery Learning > Abstract
plainn = 112- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
- It may state two separate claims as one. 6
- Probably not a substantial claim. 9
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“CVS scores for direct-instruction children increased dramatically from exploration to assessment: from 1.0 to 3.1, t(51) 5 10.5, p < .0001,d 5 1.73 (see Fig. 3).Scores for children in the discovery condition also increased, but much less: from 0.6 to 1.5, t(51) 5 5.3, p < .0001,d 5 0.725.”
§ The Equivalence of Learning Paths in Early Science Instruction Effects of Direct Instruction and Discovery Learning > Day 1: CVS Exploration and Assessment
plaindirectn = 104- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The grand poster scores of the two groups who failed to master CVS were also indis-tinguishable, but significantly lower than the scores of the three high-CVS-score groups.”
§ The Equivalence of Learning Paths in Early Science Instruction Effects of Direct Instruction and Discovery Learning > Day 2: Poster Evaluations
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“Finally, most developmental and cognitive theories predict that many of the phenomena associated with discovery learning would make it a relatively ineffective instructional method (Mayer, 2004).”
§ The Equivalence of Learning Paths in Early Science Instruction Effects of Direct Instruction and Discovery Learning > Abstract
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Mayer, 2004 source
hedgeddirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim.
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“Empirical challenges come from studies demonstrating that teacher-centered methods using direct instruction are highly effective (cf.Brophy & Good, 1986;Rosenshine & Stevens, 1986), particularly for teaching multistep procedures that students are unlikely to discover on their own, such as those involved in geometry, algebra, and computer programming (Anderson, Corbett, Koedinger, & Pelletier, 1995”
§ The Equivalence of Learning Paths in Early Science Instruction Effects of Direct Instruction and Discovery Learning > Abstract
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites Brophy & Good, 1986
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
- Not matchedcites Rosenshine & Stevens, 1986
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Anderson, Corbett, Koedinger, & Pelletier, 1995 source
boosteddirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim.
- Not matched
None of the sources cited for this claim could be matched to a paper in Crossref, so there is nothing to check it against.
In the paper
“CVS mastery is considered a central instructional objective from a wide variety of educational perspectives (DeBoer, 1991;Duschl, 1990;Murnane & Raizen, 1988;National Research Council, 1995).”
§ The Equivalence of Learning Paths in Early Science Instruction Effects of Direct Instruction and Discovery Learning > Abstract
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites DeBoer, 1991
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
- Not matchedcites Duschl, 1990
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
- Not matchedcites Murnane & Raizen, 1988
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Not matched
In the paper
“For children receiving direct instruction, mean performance on CVS increased in the psychology lab from 40% correct prior to instruction to 80% correct following instruction, whereas children in the discoverylearning condition showed no significant improvement.”
§ The Equivalence of Learning Paths in Early Science Instruction Effects of Direct Instruction and Discovery Learning > Abstract
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Chen and Klahr (1999) source
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“For example, children in discovery situations are more likely than those receiving direct instruction to encounter inconsistent or misleading feedback, to make encoding errors and causal misattributions, and to experience inadequate practice and elaboration.”
§ The Equivalence of Learning Paths in Early Science Instruction Effects of Direct Instruction and Discovery Learning > Abstract
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Mayer, 2004 source
hedgeddirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. It may state two separate claims as one.
What the paper did — it cites no source for this, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Children from both grades at each school were randomly assigned to either the direct-instruction condition or the discovery-learning condition.”
§ The Equivalence of Learning Paths in Early Science Instruction Effects of Direct Instruction and Discovery Learning > METHOD
plainn = 112- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim.
What the paper did — it cites no source for this, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“During the assessment phase, the experimenter did not provide any feedback in either condition.”
§ The Equivalence of Learning Paths in Early Science Instruction Effects of Direct Instruction and Discovery Learning > METHOD
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
What the paper did — it cites no source for this, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“It is important to note that in our operationalization, the difference between direct instruction and discovery learning does not involve a difference between ''active'' and ''passive'' learning.In both conditions, students were actively engaged in the design of their experiments and the physical manipulation of the apparatus.”
§ The Equivalence of Learning Paths in Early Science Instruction Effects of Direct Instruction and Discovery Learning > METHOD
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
What the paper did — it cites no source for this, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“A different experimenter (blind to training condition) asked all children to evaluate two science-fair posters”
§ The Equivalence of Learning Paths in Early Science Instruction Effects of Direct Instruction and Discovery Learning > METHOD
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim.
What the paper did — it cites no source for this, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Children's responses were transcribed from audiotape and coded independently by two coders.(There was 83% agreement between coders on what constituted a valid critique.)”
§ The Equivalence of Learning Paths in Early Science Instruction Effects of Direct Instruction and Discovery Learning > METHOD
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. It may state two separate claims as one.
What the paper did — it cites no source for this, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Children were assessed individually, and the order of poster presentation was counterbalanced.”
§ The Equivalence of Learning Paths in Early Science Instruction Effects of Direct Instruction and Discovery Learning > METHOD
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
The paper relies on this without support.
The operationalized direct-instruction and discovery-learning conditions adequately represent the two instructional approaches despite the lack of a consistent definition of discovery learning.
“However, at the outset, we faced a difficult definitional problem because nearly 100 years of research (cf.Winch, 1913) had yet to produce a consistent definition of discovery learning.foot_0Therefore, we intentionally magnified the difference between the two instructional treatments in order to provide a strong test of the pathindependent transfer hypothesis.”
The paper relies on this without support.
The two science-fair posters used in the transfer task are highly imperfect and thus afford wide-ranging evaluations.
“An important feature of these posters is that they described highly imperfect experiments, thus affording opportunities for wide-ranging evaluations.”
Claims other papers make about this one
Each is checked against this paper’s own text: does it say what the citing paper says it does?
The source backs part of the claim, not all of it — or backs it for a different population, condition or comparison.
In the citing paper
“Discovery learning approaches typically do not have positive academic outcomes when compared with more traditional direct instruction (Klahr, 2004; Mayer, 2004).”
From Montessori education's impact on academic and nonacademic outcomes: A systematic review (2023) · cites this paper as Klahr, 2004
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredThe source backs part of the claim, not all of it — or backs it for a different population, condition or comparison.
In the citing paper
“The work of Klahr and Nigam (2004), discussed earlier, unambiguously demonstrated the advantages of direct instruction in science.”
From Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work: An Analysis of the Failure of Constructivist, Discovery, Problem-Based, Experiential, and Inquiry-Based Teaching (2006) · cites this paper as Klahr & Nigam, 2004
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredThe cited source says what the claim attributes to it.
In the citing paper
“Direct instruction involving considerable guidance, including examples, resulted in vastly more learning than discovery.”
From Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work: An Analysis of the Failure of Constructivist, Discovery, Problem-Based, Experiential, and Inquiry-Based Teaching (2006) · cites this paper as Klahr & Nigam, 2004
The cited source says what the claim attributes to it.
In the citing paper
“Those relatively few students who learned via discovery showed no signs of superior quality of learning.”
From Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work: An Analysis of the Failure of Constructivist, Discovery, Problem-Based, Experiential, and Inquiry-Based Teaching (2006) · cites this paper as Klahr & Nigam, 2004
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“The distinction between guided learning and active, constructive learning echoes Piaget’s assertion that teaching children something prematurely often keeps them from inventing it themselves, which may consequently prevent complete understanding (Piaget, 1970, as cited in Klahr & Nigam, 2004).”
BackgroundEfficacy of a Second-Grade Science Program: Increasing Science Outcomes for All Students
Doabler, C. T., Therrien, W. J., Longhi, M. A., et al. (2021) · Remedial and Special Education · doi:10.1177/0741932521989091 · Cited by 14
“For example, early studies demonstrated positive effects of explicit instruction in science for struggling learners (Klahr & Nigam, 2004; Mastropieri et al., 1997).”
BackgroundResultParental praise and children’s exploration: a virtual reality experiment
Brummelman, E., Grapsas, S., & van der Kooij, K. (2022) · Scientific Reports · doi:10.1038/s41598-022-08226-9 · Cited by 14
Garashkina, N. V., & Druzhinina, A. A. (2023) · Высшее образование в России · doi:10.31992/0869-3617-2023-32-1-93-109 · Cited by 14
Impact of an inquiry unit on grade 4 students’ science learning
Mauro, M. F. D., & Furman, M. (2016) · International Journal of Science Education · doi:10.1080/09500693.2016.1234085 · Cited by 14
“Various authors have reported on the effectiveness of their interventions to enhance cross-domain experimental skills in grades 6 or 7, or even lower age groups (e.g. Carey et al., 1989; Ergül et al., 2011; Klahr & Nigam, 2004).”
BackgroundWhen does passive learning improve the effectiveness of active learning
MacDonald, K. E., & Frank, M. (2016) · eScholarship (California Digital Library) · Cited by 14
Wang, Z. (2010) · ScholarlyCommons (University of Pennsylvania) · Cited by 14
U.S. parents' attitudes toward playful learning
Wright, C. A., Josh Pasek, B., Lee, J. Y., Masters, A. S., Golinkoff, R. M., Thomsen, B. S., & Hirsh‐Pasek, K. (2023) · Frontiers in Developmental Psychology · doi:10.3389/fdpys.2023.1267169 · Cited by 15
Discovery Learning—Jerome Bruner
Yılmaz, Y. Ö., & Bilican, K. (2025) · Springer texts in education · doi:10.1007/978-3-031-81351-1_11 · Cited by 13
Application of Skill Theory to compare scientific reasoning of young children in different tasks
Meindertsma, H. B., Dijk, V. M., Steenbeek, H., et al. (2012) · University of Groningen research database (University of Groningen / Centre for Information Technology) · Cited by 13
Measuring Explicit Instruction Using Classroom Observations of Student–Teacher Interactions (COSTI)
Gunn, B., Smolkowski, K., Strycker, L. A., & Dennis, C. (2021) · Perspectives on Behavior Science · doi:10.1007/s40614-021-00291-1 · Cited by 22
Asshoff, R., Konnemann, C., Tramowsky, N., & Rieß, W. (2021) · Sustainability · doi:10.3390/su13169208 · Cited by 14
A Model of Scientific Data Reasoning
Masnick, A. M., & Morris, B. J. (2022) · Education Sciences · doi:10.3390/educsci12020071 · Cited by 13
“However, these skills are limited by children’s emerging understanding of scientific experimentation [50], implementing this knowledge in novel contexts [38,136], and cognitive biases (e.”
BackgroundTeamwork — teach me, teach me not: A case study of three Australian preservice teachers
Main, K. (2010) · The Australian Educational Researcher · doi:10.1007/bf03216931 · Cited by 13
“This is in contrast to a growing number of researchers who support providing novice learners with direct instruction and guidance rather than a minimally guided approach such as experiential or constructivist learning ( Klahr & Nigam, 2004; Tarmizi & Sweller, 1988).”
ResultPhilosophical and Pedagogical Problems with Constructivism in Science Education
Matthews, M. R. (2012) · Tréma · doi:10.4000/trema.2823 · Cited by 13
Beal, C. R., & Stevens, R. H. (2011) · Cited by 13
Pedro, M. S., Gobert, J. D., & Raziuddin, J. (2010) · International Conference of Learning Sciences · Cited by 13
Where Learning Meets Creativity: The Promise of Guided Play
Zosh, J. M., Hirsh‐Pasek, K., Golinkoff, R. M., & Dore, R. A. (2016) · Creativity theory and action in education · doi:10.1007/978-3-319-21924-0_10 · Cited by 20
“Klahr and Nigam ( 2004 ) also champion the idea that direct instruction might be the only way to convey information in some domains, like some aspects of scientifi c learning.”
BackgroundDigital assessment environments for scientific inquiry practices
Gobert, J. D., & Sao Pedro, M. A. (2016) · The Handbook of Cognition and Assessment · doi:10.1002/9781118956588.ch21 · Cited by 14
Multidisciplinary exhibit design in a Science Centre: a participatory action research approach
Rudman, H., Ross, C., Kendal, J. R., et al. (2017) · Educational Action Research · doi:10.1080/09650792.2017.1360786 · Cited by 13
“We understand discovery learning as a minimally guided pedagogical approach (Kirschner, Sweller, and Clark 2006), where children develop or construct knowledge on their own (Klahr and Nigam 2004).”
BackgroundA Unifying Computational Framework for Teaching and Active Learning
Yang, S. C., Vong, W. K., Yu, Y., & Shafto, P. (2019) · Topics in Cognitive Science · doi:10.1111/tops.12405 · Cited by 11
“Research has focused on identifying which of these is more effective for promoting learning, with mixed evidence in favor of exploration (Steffe & Gale, 1995), direct instruction (Kirschner et al., 2006), and rough equivalence (Klahr & Nigam, 2004).”
BackgroundAre fourth and fifth grade children better scientists through metacognitive learning?
Dejonckheere, P., Keere, K. V. D., & Tallir, I. (2017) · Electronic Journal of Research in Educational Psychology · doi:10.25115/ejrep.v9i23.1431 · Cited by 13
“For instance Chen and Klahr (1999) and Klahr and Nigam (2004) found that children of 9-year olds were able to understand the controlled comparison strategy after they received a brief intervention of a teacher.”
BackgroundResultDeaf Children’s Engagement with American Sign Language-English Bilingual Storybook Apps
Herzig, M., & Allen, T. E. (2022) · The Journal of Deaf Studies and Deaf Education · doi:10.1093/deafed/enac032 · Cited by 12
“How will you construct a pathway system?”: Microanalysis of teacher-child scientific conversations
Haber, A. S., Puttre, H., Ghossainy, M. E., & Corriveau, K. H. (2021) · Journal of Childhood Education & Society · doi:10.37291/2717638x.202123117 · Cited by 15
“…on children’s science questions in the preschool classroom and how teachers use a variety of pedagogical moves (or strategies for responding to questions) to foster their natural curiosity and science learning (e.g., Dean Jr. & Kuhn, 2007; Golinkoff & Hirsh-Pasek, 2016; Klahr & Nigam, 2004).”
BackgroundThe Effect of Prior Conceptual Knowledge on Procedural Performance and Learning in Algebra
Booth, J. L., Koedinger, K. R., & Siegler, R. S. (2007) · eScholarship (California Digital Library) · Cited by 12
Modeling Learner’s Cognitive and Metacognitive Strategies in an Open-Ended Learning Environment
Segedy, J. R., Kinnebrew, J. S., & Biswas, G. (2011) · National Conference on Artificial Intelligence · Cited by 12
Walker, C. M., & Nyhout, A. (2020) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/9781108553803.013 · Cited by 12
“…than engaging in correct CVS, which involves isolating a single variable and holding all others constant, elementary-aged children often manipulate multiple variables at a time, creating a confounded test of a hypothesis (Chen & Klahr, 1999; Klahr & Nigam, 2004; Schauble, 1996; Zimmerman, 2007).”
BackgroundRosé, C. P., Aleven, V. A. W. M. M., Carey, R., & Robinson, A. L. (2018) · doi:10.1184/r1/6469769 · Cited by 12
Inquiry: Does It Favor the Prepared Mind?
Heppner, F. H., Kouttab, K., & Croasdale, W. (2006) · The American Biology Teacher · doi:10.1662/0002-7685(2006)68[390:idiftp]2.0.co;2 · Cited by 16
Cognitive Load Theory: What We Learn and How We Learn
Sweller, J. (2023) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-3-319-17461-7_50 · Cited by 15
Duffin, L. C., Keith, H. B., Rudloff, M. I., & Cribbs, J. (2019) · International Journal of Research in Undergraduate Mathematics Education · doi:10.1007/s40753-019-00101-9 · Cited by 11
Hilfert‐Rüppell, D., Meier, M., Horn, D. N. V., & Höner, K. (2021) · Education Sciences · doi:10.3390/educsci11100629 · Cited by 18
An fMRI investigation of instructional guidance in mathematical problem solving
Lee, H. S., Fincham, J. M., Betts, S., & Anderson, J. R. (2014) · Trends in Neuroscience and Education · doi:10.1016/j.tine.2014.01.001 · Cited by 11
“This finding is consistent with the previous study by Klahr and Nigam [38] who found that transfer performance depended onwhether students mastered a skill and not whether there was direct instruction.”
ResultEducation for Rational Thought
Toplak, M. E., West, R. F., & Stanovich, K. E. (2012) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/cbo9781139048224.006 · Cited by 15
The effect of discovery learning on students’ integrated thinking abilities and creative attitudes
Syolendra, D. F., & Laksono, E. W. (2019) · Journal of Physics Conference Series · doi:10.1088/1742-6596/1156/1/012018 · Cited by 11
Development and initial validation of a performance-based scientific reasoning test for children
Lazonder, A. W., & Janssen, N. (2020) · Studies In Educational Evaluation · doi:10.1016/j.stueduc.2020.100951 · Cited by 12
‘Click next’: on the merits of more student autonomy and less direct instruction in CAT teaching
Vieira, L. N., Zhang, X., & Yu, G. (2021) · The Interpreter and Translator Trainer · doi:10.1080/1750399x.2021.1891515 · Cited by 11
“…instruction’ – in the singular to signify a broader method rather than a given set of instructions – is usually opposed to constructivist teaching approaches that are often referred to in different ways, including ‘discovery learning’ and ‘learning by doing’ (Klahr and Nigam 2004; Reese 2011).”
Lillard, A. S. (2011) · Cited by 11
Learning From Examples Versus Verbal Directions in Mathematical Problem Solving
Lee, H. S., Fincham, J. M., & Anderson, J. R. (2015) · Mind Brain and Education · doi:10.1111/mbe.12096 · Cited by 11
Dupont, S., Meert, G., Galand, B., & Nils, F. (2012) · European Journal of Psychology of Education · doi:10.1007/s10212-012-0132-7 · Cited by 12
Yeh, T., Huang, H.-M., Chan, W. P., & Chang, C. (2016) · BMJ Open · doi:10.1136/bmjopen-2015-009925 · Cited by 11
Improvement of Model Student Learning Through The Content of Solutions Guided Discovery Buffer
Setiadi, I., & Irhasyuarna, Y. (2017) · IOSR Journal of Research & Method in Education (IOSRJRME) · doi:10.9790/7388-0701050109 · Cited by 11
“According to Klahr and Nigam (2004), that in science learning models use the invention as opposite to the direct learning will produce a deep and lost longer understanding in students.”
BackgroundHastuti, I. D., Surahmat, S., Sutarto, S., & Dafik, D. (2020) · International journal of scientific and technology research · Cited by 11
Pedro, S., & Michael, A. (2013) · Cited by 11
Technology Supports for Acquiring Inquiry Skills
de Jong, T. (2010) · Elsevier eBooks · doi:10.1016/b978-0-08-044894-7.00734-x · Cited by 11
Another case of the theory to practice gap: South Korean early childhood education and care
Lee, J. Y., Wright, C. A., Golinkoff, R. M., & Hirsh‐Pasek, K. (2023) · Early Childhood Research Quarterly · doi:10.1016/j.ecresq.2023.07.008 · Cited by 14
The use of scaffolding to promote preschool children’s competencies of evidence-based reasoning
Hardy, I., Stephan-Gramberg, S., & Jurecka, A. (2021) · Unterrichtswissenschaft · doi:10.1007/s42010-020-00094-4 · Cited by 10
Enhancing Informal Stem Learning Through Family Engagement in Cooking
Morris, B. J., Zentall, S. R., Murray, G. W., & Owens, W. (2021) · COSMOS · doi:10.1142/s2591722621400111 · Cited by 11
Students’ Understanding of Statistical Inference: Implications for Teaching
Reaburn, R. (2018) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-981-13-0511-5_12 · Cited by 10
Long, H. (2016) · Social Psychology of Education · doi:10.1007/s11218-016-9358-6 · Cited by 10
The benefit of combining teacher-direction with contrasted presentation of algebra principles
Ziegler, E., Edelsbrunner, P. A., & Stern, E. (2020) · European Journal of Psychology of Education · doi:10.1007/s10212-020-00468-3 · Cited by 12
Perron, S., Hasni, A., & Boilevin, J.-M. (2020) · Recherches en éducation · doi:10.4000/ree.1643 · Cited by 10
Little Pitchers Use Their Big Ears: Preschoolers Solve Problems by Listening to Others Ask Questions
Mills, C. M., Danovitch, J. H., Grant, M. G., & Elashi, F. B. (2012) · Child Development · doi:10.1111/j.1467-8624.2011.01725.x · Cited by 9
Constructivism: Constructing Meaning or Making Sense?
Panasuk, R. M., & Lewis, S. (2012) · Cited by 10
Értékelés a kutatásalapú természettudomány-tanulásban: a SAILS projekt
Csapó, B., Csíkos, C., & Korom, E. (2016) · Iskolakultúra · doi:10.17543/iskkult.2016.3.3 · Cited by 12
Epistemic foundations for conceptual change.
Duschl, R. A., & Jiménez‐Aleixandre, M. P. (2012) · American Psychological Association eBooks · doi:10.1037/13617-012 · Cited by 11
Tools for Knowledge Analysis, Synthesis, and Sharing
Medland, M. B. (2006) · Journal of Science Education and Technology · doi:10.1007/s10956-006-9019-1 · Cited by 10
“The results not only support the power of these technologies to promote learning, but transfer of training to new learning situations as well ( Klahr and Nigam, 2004; Rittle-Johnson, 2006).”
BackgroundCausal Reasoning and Explanation
Koslowski, B., & Masnick, A. M. (2010) · doi:10.1002/9781444325485.ch14 · Cited by 10
Hwang, J. L., Choo, S., Morano, S., Liang, M., & Kabel, M. (2024) · Learning Disabilities Research and Practice · doi:10.1177/09388982241245452 · Cited by 11
“…stage of the inquiry cycle consistent with the fi ndings of a meta-analysis (Al fi eri et al., 2011) showing that explicit instruction was more effective than unstructured (or unassisted) discovery learning across science domains and outcome measures (e.g., Klahr & Nigam, 2004; Toth et al., 2000).”
ResultZosh, J. M., Pyle, A., D’Sa, N., Omoeva, C., Robson, S., Ariapa, M., Giacomazzi, M., Dey, G., Escallón, E., Maldonado‐Carreño, C., et al. (2024) · Trends in Neuroscience and Education · doi:10.1016/j.tine.2024.100225 · Cited by 12
“But, research also suggests that there are some contexts in which direct instruction is better suited to support learning, especially of scientific thinking content [30].”
BackgroundEffects and Side Effects: What Is Missing in Education Research
Zhao, Y., & Beghetto, R. A. (2024) · Review of Research in Education · doi:10.3102/0091732x241282571 · Cited by 9
“Students with inquiry-based learning experiences appear to have deeper understanding of the disciplinary concepts and healthier social and emotional capabilities (Klahr & Nigam, 2004; Schweinhart & Weikart, 1997).”
Menekşe, M., Stump, G., Krause, S. J., et al. (2020) · ASEE Annual Conference & Exposition · doi:10.18260/1-2--18093 · Cited by 9
Zoupidis, A., Tselfes, V., & Καριώτογλου, Π. (2021) · International Journal of Early Years Education · doi:10.1080/09669760.2021.1890552 · Cited by 14
“These results are in line with relevant literature which claims that a combination of experimenting and explicit teaching of the reasoning of the CVS method leads to positive learning results (Chen and Klahr 1999; Klahr and Nigam 2004; Lorch et al. 2010; Zoupidis, Strangas, and Kariotoglou 2017).”
BackgroundResultTolba, E. G. A., & Al-Osaimi, A. M. (2023) · Eurasia Journal of Mathematics Science and Technology Education · doi:10.29333/ejmste/13111 · Cited by 15
Model-Based Diagnosis for Regulative Support in Inquiry Learning
van Joolingen, W., & de Jong, T. (2013) · Springer international handbooks of education · doi:10.1007/978-1-4419-5546-3_38 · Cited by 9
The Service User as a Partner in Social Work Projects and Education
Chiapparini, E. (2016) · Verlag Barbara Budrich eBooks · doi:10.3224/84740507 · Cited by 9
Scientific reasoning and counterfactual reasoning in development
Nyhout, A., & Ganea, P. A. (2021) · Advances in child development and behavior · doi:10.1016/bs.acdb.2021.04.005 · Cited by 10
Soysal, Y. (2022) · Science & Education · doi:10.1007/s11191-021-00266-3 · Cited by 9
Du, X., Zhang, L., Hung, J.-L., Li, H., Tang, H., & Dai, M. (2022) · Journal of Computing in Higher Education · doi:10.1007/s12528-022-09345-y · Cited by 11
“However, Klahr and Nigam (2004) obtained the opposite conclusion.”
Entwicklung des wissenschaftlichen Denkens im Vor- und Grundschulalter
Sodian, B., & Mayer, D. (2013) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-3-531-19066-2_43 · Cited by 9
Let the Questions Be Your Guide: MBE as Interdisciplinary Science
Rose, L. T., Daley, S. G., & Rose, D. H. (2011) · Mind Brain and Education · doi:10.1111/j.1751-228x.2011.01123.x · Cited by 9
Lazonder, A. W., & Wiskerke-Drost, S. (2014) · Journal of Science Education and Technology · doi:10.1007/s10956-014-9522-8 · Cited by 10
Menekşe, M. (2012) · Cited by 9
Chi, M., & VanLehn, K. A. (2007) · eScholarship (California Digital Library) · Cited by 9
Characteristics of Problems in Problem-based Learning
Sockalingam, N. (2010) · RePub (Erasmus University Rotterdam) · Cited by 9
PROBLEMS AND PROSPECTS OF SCIENCE EDUCATION AT SECONDARY LEVEL IN PAKISTAN
Ahmad, F. F. (2011) · Cited by 9
Knowledge Development in Early Childhood
Pinkham, A. M., Herold, L., & Neuman, S. B. (2013) · doi:10.1093/obo/9780199756810-0100 · Cited by 9
Lavine, R. A. (2012) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-1-4419-1428-6_526 · Cited by 9
Metadata
- Authors
- Klahr, D., & Nigam, M.
- Affiliations
- Carnegie Mellon University (US)
- University of Pittsburgh (US)
- Venue
- Psychological Science
- Publisher
- SAGE Publications
- Published
- 2004-10
- Volume
- 15
- Issue
- 10
- Pages
- 661-667
- ISSN
- 0956-7976 (ISSN-L)
- 1467-9280
- OpenAlex
- W2139559367
- Cited by
- 977
- References
- 35
- Citations by year
- 2026: 28 · 2025: 31 · 2024: 39 · 2023: 36 · 2022: 41 · 2021: 59 · 2020: 59 · 2019: 45 · 2018: 63 · 2017: 53 · 2016: 64 · 2015: 49 · 2014: 49 · 2013: 50 · 2012: 69
- FWCI
- 115.71
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- green
- doi.org
- Locations
- Psychological Science (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- Figshare (submittedVersion)
- KiltHub Repository
- Funders
- Eunice Kennedy Shriver National Institute of Child Health and Human Development (R01HD025211)
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Education › Science Education and Pedagogy
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Experimental and Cognitive Psychology › Visual and Cognitive Learning Processes
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Developmental and Educational Psychology › Innovative Teaching and Learning Methods
- Keywords
- discovery learning, direct instruction, early childhood science education, elementary school students, experimental design, transfer of learning, scientific reasoning, learning trajectories, teaching effectiveness
- MeSH terms
- Achievement, Child, Female, Humans, Learning, Male, Science, Teaching
About these checks
Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.
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