Physical and motor fitness are both related to cognition in old age
Abstract
The benefits of fitness for cognitive performance in healthy older adults have repeatedly been demonstrated. Animal studies, however, have revealed differential relationships between physical and motor fitness and brain metabolism. We therefore investigated whether for older humans different dimensions of fitness are differentially associated with cognitive performance and brain activation patterns. Seventy‐two participants (mean age 68.99 years, SD = 3.66; 52 females) completed four psychometric tests reflecting two primary abilities of higher cognitive functioning (executive control, perceptual speed) and a battery of fitness tests comprising two fitness dimensions (physical and motor fitness). We found that not only physical fitness indexed by cardiovascular fitness and muscular strength, but also motor fitness including movement speed, balance, motor coordination and flexibility showed a strong association with cognitive functioning. Additionally, functional brain imaging data revealed that physical and motor fitness were differentially related to cognitive processes. Results are discussed with regard to the compensation hypothesis and potential consequences for intervention work.
Integrity signals
Registry
Cites
Statistics
Claims the paper makes
Claims other papers make about this one
Each is checked against this paper’s own text: does it say what the citing paper says it does?
Physical exercise and higher fitness levels are associated with a reduced loss of hippocampal, gray, and white matter volume with aging.
“Imaging studies indicate that physical exercise and higher fitness levels are associated with a reduced loss of hippocampal, gray and white matter volume with aging [34, 56, 57, 90, 189].”
From The neuropathology of sport (2014) · cites this paper as [189]
Cites
An Integrative Theory of Prefrontal Cortex Function
Miller, E. K., & Cohen, J. D. (2001) · Annual Review of Neuroscience · doi:10.1146/annurev.neuro.24.1.167 · Cited by 12,803 · see citing works
Fitness Effects on the Cognitive Function of Older Adults: A Meta-Analytic Study
Colcombe, S., & Kramer, A. F. (2003) · Psychological Science · doi:10.1111/1467-9280.t01-1-01430 · Cited by 3,782 · see citing works
Be smart, exercise your heart: Exercise effects on brain and cognition
Hillman, C. H., Erickson, K. I., & Kramer, A. F. (2008) · Nature Reviews Neuroscience · doi:10.1038/nrn2298 · Cited by 3,563 · see citing works
Working memory, comprehension, and aging: A review and a new view
Hasher, L., & Zacks, R. T. (1988) · Psychology of Learning and Motivation · doi:10.1016/s0079-7421(08)60041-9 · Cited by 3,456 · see citing works
Forman, S. D., Cohen, J. D., Fitzgerald, M., Eddy, W. F., Mintun, M. A., & Noll, D. C. (1995) · Magnetic Resonance in Medicine · doi:10.1002/mrm.1910330508 · Cited by 3,202 · see citing works
Development and Validation of a Functional Fitness Test for Community-Residing Older Adults
Rikli, R. E., & Jones, C. J. (1999) · Journal of Aging and Physical Activity · doi:10.1123/japa.7.2.129 · Cited by 2,090 · see citing works
Optimizing the use of information: Strategic control of activation of responses.
Gratton, G., COLES, M. G. H., & Donchin, E. (1992) · Journal of Experimental Psychology General · doi:10.1037//0096-3445.121.4.480 · Cited by 1,798 · see citing works
Cardiovascular fitness, cortical plasticity, and aging
Colcombe, S. J., Kramer, A. F., Erickson, K. I., Scalf, P., McAuley, E., Cohen, N. J., Webb, A., Jerome, G. J., Marquez, D. X., & Elavsky, S. (2004) · Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences · doi:10.1073/pnas.0400266101 · Cited by 1,648 · see citing works
Neurocognitive Aging and the Compensation Hypothesis
Reuter‐Lorenz, P. A., & Cappell, K. A. (2008) · Current Directions in Psychological Science · doi:10.1111/j.1467-8721.2008.00570.x · Cited by 1,645 · see citing works
Optimizing the use of information: Strategic control of activation of responses.
Gratton, G., COLES, M. G. H., & Donchin, E. (1992) · Journal of Experimental Psychology General · doi:10.1037/0096-3445.121.4.480 · Cited by 1,574 · see citing works
The Purdue Pegboard: norms and studies of reliability and validity.
Tiffin, J. H., & Asher, E. J. (1948) · Journal of Applied Psychology · doi:10.1037/h0061266 · Cited by 1,247 · see citing works
Black, J. E., Isaacs, K. R., Anderson, B. J., Alcantara, A. A., & Greenough, W. T. (1990) · Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences · doi:10.1073/pnas.87.14.5568 · Cited by 1,161 · see citing works
Goebel, R., Esposito, F., & Formisano, E. (2006) · Human Brain Mapping · doi:10.1002/hbm.20249 · Cited by 1,053 · see citing works
Spatial awareness is a function of the temporal not the posterior parietal lobe
Karnath, H., Ferber, S., & Himmelbach, M. (2001) · Nature · doi:10.1038/35082075 · Cited by 813 · see citing works
The influence of physical fitness and exercise upon cognitive functioning: a meta-analysis
Etnier, J. L., Salazar, W., Landers, D. M., Petruzzello, S. J., Han, M., & Nowell, P. (1997) · Journal of Sport and Exercise Psychology · doi:10.1123/jsep.19.3.249 · Cited by 768 · see citing works
Capitalizing on cortical plasticity: influence of physical activity on cognition and brain function
Kramer, A. F., & Erickson, K. I. (2007) · Trends in Cognitive Sciences · doi:10.1016/j.tics.2007.06.009 · Cited by 741 · see citing works
Aging and inhibition: Beyond a unitary view of inhibitory processing in attention.
Kramer, A. F., Humphrey, D. G., Larish, J. F., & Logan, G. D. (1994) · Psychology and Aging · doi:10.1037/0882-7974.9.4.491 · Cited by 699 · see citing works
Li, S., Lindenberger, U., Hommel, B., Aschersleben, G., Prinz, W., & Baltes, P. B. (2004) · Psychological Science · doi:10.1111/j.0956-7976.2004.01503003.x · Cited by 677 · see citing works
Acute coordinative exercise improves attentional performance in adolescents
Budde, H., Voelcker‐Rehage, C., Pietraßyk-Kendziorra, S., Ribeiro, P. F. M., & Tidow, G. (2008) · Neuroscience Letters · doi:10.1016/j.neulet.2008.06.024 · Cited by 649 · see citing works
Self-citationMemorizing while walking: Increase in dual-task costs from young adulthood to old age.
Lindenberger, U., Marsiske, M., & Baltes, P. B. (2000) · Psychology and Aging · doi:10.1037//0882-7974.15.3.417 · Cited by 592 · see citing works
Lindenberger, U., & Baltes, P. B. (1997) · Psychology and Aging · doi:10.1037//0882-7974.12.3.410 · Cited by 542 · see citing works
Adult age differences in working memory
Dobbs, A. R., & Rule, B. G. (1989) · Psychology and Aging · doi:10.1037/0882-7974.4.4.500 · Cited by 466 · see citing works
Memorizing while walking: Increase in dual-task costs from young adulthood to old age.
Lindenberger, U., Marsiske, M., & Baltes, P. B. (2000) · Psychology and Aging · doi:10.1037/0882-7974.15.3.417 · Cited by 446 · see citing works
Training-induced structural changes in the adult human brain
Draganski, B., & May, A. (2008) · Behavioural Brain Research · doi:10.1016/j.bbr.2008.02.015 · Cited by 437 · see citing works
Isaacs, K. R., Anderson, B. J., Alcantara, A. A., Black, J. E., & Greenough, W. T. (1992) · Journal of Cerebral Blood Flow & Metabolism · doi:10.1038/jcbfm.1992.14 · Cited by 405 · see citing works
Kramer, A. F., Hahn, S., & Gopher, D. (1999) · Acta Psychologica · doi:10.1016/s0001-6918(99)00011-6 · Cited by 405 · see citing works
The Freiburg Visual Acuity Test-Variability unchanged by post-hoc re-analysis
Bach, M. (2006) · Graefe s Archive for Clinical and Experimental Ophthalmology · doi:10.1007/s00417-006-0474-4 · Cited by 396 · see citing works
Lindenberger, U., & Baltes, P. B. (1997) · Psychology and Aging · doi:10.1037/0882-7974.12.3.410 · Cited by 394 · see citing works
Adult age differences in working memory.
Dobbs, A. R., & Rule, B. G. (1989) · Psychology and Aging · doi:10.1037//0882-7974.4.4.500 · Cited by 389 · see citing works
Casey, B. J., Thomas, K. M., Welsh, T. F., Badgaiyan, R. D., Eccard, C. H., Jennings, J. R., & Crone, E. A. (2000) · Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences · doi:10.1073/pnas.97.15.8728 · Cited by 389 · see citing works
Functional plasticity in cognitive aging: Review and hypothesis.
Greenwood, P. M. (2007) · Neuropsychology · doi:10.1037/0894-4105.21.6.657 · Cited by 304 · see citing works
Hillman, C. H., Motl, R. W., Pontifex, M. B., Posthuma, D., Stubbe, J. H., Boomsma, D. I., & de Geus, E. J. C. (2006) · Health Psychology · doi:10.1037/0278-6133.25.6.678 · Cited by 288 · see citing works
Visual Search Across the Life Span.
Hommel, B., Li, K. Z. H., & Li, S.-C. (2004) · Developmental Psychology · doi:10.1037/0012-1649.40.4.545 · Cited by 262 · see citing works
Selective Synaptic Plasticity within the Cerebellar Cortex Following Complex Motor Skill Learning
Kleim, J. A., Swain, R. A., Armstrong, K. A., Napper, R. M. A., Jones, T. A., & Greenough, W. T. (1998) · Neurobiology of Learning and Memory · doi:10.1006/nlme.1998.3827 · Cited by 219 · see citing works
Standing Balance in Healthy Subjects. Evaluation of a Quantitative Test Battery on a Force Platform
Ekdahl, C., Jarnlo, G., & Andersson, S. I. (2020) · Journal of Rehabilitation Medicine · doi:10.2340/165019778921187195 · Cited by 217 · see citing works
Integrative neurocomputational perspectives on cognitive aging, neuromodulation, and representation
Li, S., & Sikström, S. (2002) · Neuroscience & Biobehavioral Reviews · doi:10.1016/s0149-7634(02)00066-0 · Cited by 217 · see citing works
Age-Related Changes in Task-Switching Components: The Role of Task Uncertainty
Kray, J., Li, K., & Lindenberger, U. (2002) · Brain and Cognition · doi:10.1006/brcg.2001.1505 · Cited by 192 · see citing works
Anderson, B. J., Li, X., Alcantara, A. A., Isaacs, K. R., Black, J., & Greenough, W. T. (1994) · Glia · doi:10.1002/glia.440110110 · Cited by 185 · see citing works
Deficits in executive functions and motor coordination in children with frontal lobe epilepsy
Hernández, M. T. (2002) · Neuropsychologia · doi:10.1016/s0028-3932(01)00130-0 · Cited by 183 · see citing works
A Treadmill Ramp Protocol Using Simultaneous Changes in Speed and Grade
Pórszász, J., Casaburi, R. H., Somfay, A., Woodhouse, L. J., & Whipp, B. J. (2003) · Medicine & Science in Sports & Exercise · doi:10.1249/01.mss.0000084593.56786.da · Cited by 170 · see citing works
Physical Activity, Age, and Cognitive-Neuropsychological Function
Dustman, R. E., Emmerson, R. Y., & Shearer, D. E. (1994) · Journal of Aging and Physical Activity · doi:10.1123/japa.2.2.143 · Cited by 159 · see citing works
Age-related Differences in Working Memory and Force Control under Dual-task Conditions
Voelcker‐Rehage, C., Stronge, A. J., & Alberts, J. L. (2006) · Aging Neuropsychology and Cognition · doi:10.1080/138255890969339 · Cited by 120 · see citing works
Self-citationEffect of carbon monoxide on oxygen transport during exercise
Vogel, J. A., & Gleser, M. A. (1972) · Journal of Applied Physiology · doi:10.1152/jappl.1972.32.2.234 · Cited by 109 · see citing works
Eurofit for Adults: Assessment of Health-related Fitness
Oja, P., & Tuxworth, B. (1995) · Cited by 100 · see citing works
Elsayed, M., Ismail, A. H., & Young, R. J. (1980) · Journal of Gerontology · doi:10.1093/geronj/35.3.383 · Cited by 92 · see citing works
A computerized test battery sensitive to mild and severe brain injury.
Gualtieri, C. T., & Johnson, L. G. (2008) · PubMed Central · Cited by 70 · see citing works
Locus of the Age-Stroop Interference Relationship
Panek, P. E., Rush, M. C., & Slade, L. (1984) · The Journal of Genetic Psychology · doi:10.1080/00221325.1984.10532268 · Cited by 64 · see citing works
Relations between the Motor and Cognitive Dimensions of Preschool Girls and Boys
Planinšec, J. (2002) · Perceptual and Motor Skills · doi:10.2466/pms.2002.94.2.415 · Cited by 59 · see citing works
A Pilot Study of a Possible Effect from a Motor Task on Reading Performance
Uhrich, T. A., & Swalm, R. L. (2007) · Perceptual and Motor Skills · doi:10.2466/pms.104.3.1035-1041 · Cited by 57 · see citing works
RELATIONS BETWEEN THE MOTOR AND COGNITIVE DIMENSIONS OF PRESCHOOL GIRLS AND BOYS
Planinšec, J. (2002) · Perceptual and Motor Skills · doi:10.2466/pms.94.2.415-423 · Cited by 12 · see citing works
Flagged first, then by citations
Cited by
Sorted by citations
Sarcopenia with limited mobility: an international consensus
Morley, J. E., Abbatecola, A. M., Argiles, J. M., Baracos, V., Bauer, J., Bhasin, S., Cederholm, T., Stewart Coats, A. J., Cummings, S. R., Evans, W. J., et al. (2011) · Journal of the American Medical Directors Association · doi:10.1016/j.jamda.2011.04.014 · Cited by 1,125 · see citing works
Beneficial effects of physical exercise on neuroplasticity and cognition
Hötting, K., & Röder, B. (2013) · Neuroscience & Biobehavioral Reviews · doi:10.1016/j.neubiorev.2013.04.005 · Cited by 991 · see citing works
McKee, A. C., Daneshvar, D. H., Alvarez, V. E., & Stein, T. D. (2014) · Acta Neuropathologica · doi:10.1007/s00401-013-1230-6 · Cited by 422 · see citing works
Niemann, C., Godde, B., & Voelcker-Rehage, C. (2014) · Frontiers in Aging Neuroscience · doi:10.3389/fnagi.2014.00170 · Cited by 190 · see citing works
Self-citationJoggin’ the Noggin: Towards a Physiological Understanding of Exercise-Induced Cognitive Benefits
Stimpson, N. J., Davison, G., & Javadi, A.-H. (2018) · Neuroscience & Biobehavioral Reviews · doi:10.1016/j.neubiorev.2018.03.018 · Cited by 134 · see citing works
Molecular and cellular aspects of age-related cognitive decline and Alzheimer’s disease
Hullinger, R., & Puglielli, L. (2017) · Behavioural Brain Research · doi:10.1016/j.bbr.2016.05.008 · Cited by 68 · see citing works
- Authors
- Voelcker‐Rehage, C., Godde, B., & Staudinger, U. M.
- Affiliations
- Constructor University (DE)
- Venue
- European Journal of Neuroscience
- Publisher
- Wiley
- Published
- 2009-12-24
- Volume
- 31
- Issue
- 1
- Pages
- 167-176
- ISSN
- 0953-816X (ISSN-L)
- 1460-9568
- OpenAlex
- W2138186223
- Cited by
- 282
- References
- 50
- Citations by year
- 2026: 3 · 2025: 12 · 2024: 14 · 2023: 11 · 2022: 19 · 2021: 19 · 2020: 16 · 2019: 21 · 2018: 20 · 2017: 28 · 2016: 20 · 2015: 24 · 2014: 21 · 2013: 20 · 2012: 14
- FWCI
- 7.51
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- closed
- Locations
- European Journal of Neuroscience (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- Funders
- Robert Bosch Stiftung
- Topics
- Health Sciences › Medicine › Physiology › Physical Activity and Health
- Health Sciences › Medicine › Psychiatry and Mental health › Dementia and Cognitive Impairment Research
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Neuropsychology and Physiological Psychology › Aging and Gerontology Research
- Keywords
- physical fitness, motor fitness, cognitive aging, older adults, executive function, perceptual speed, cardiorespiratory fitness, muscle strength, balance, motor coordination, flexibility, brain activation, compensation hypothesis
- MeSH terms
- Aged, Aging, Brain, Brain Mapping, Cardiovascular Physiological Phenomena, Cognition, Postural Balance, Female, Humans, Magnetic Resonance Imaging, Male, Middle Aged, Motor Activity, Neuropsychological Tests, Physical Fitness, Psychometrics, Psychomotor Performance, Pliability, Muscle Strength, Executive Function
About these checks
Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.
Statistics and arithmetic are recomputed, not judged.
Confidence bands are shown only for fields calibrated on our annotated test set. None is calibrated yet, so no band is shown.
What counts as a claim ›How we measure confidence ›How we check this ›
Are you an author, or do you see a problem with this page? Request a review