The DOI matches its Crossref record; 81 of the 81 references it cites were found in a registry or an index.
The Development of Nonverbal Working Memory and Executive Control Processes in Adolescents
Abstract
The prefrontal cortex modulates executive control processes and structurally matures throughout adolescence. Consistent with these events, prefrontal functions that demand high levels of executive control may mature later than those that require working memory but decreased control. To test this hypothesis, adolescents (9 to 20 years old) completed nonverbal working memory tasks with varying levels of executive demands. Findings suggest that recall-guided action for single units of spatial information develops until 11 to 12 years. The ability to maintain and manipulate multiple spatial units develops until 13 to 15 years. Strategic self-organization develops until ages 16 to 17 years. Recognition memory did not appear to develop over this age range. Implications for prefrontal cortex organization by level of processing are discussed.
Overview
Integrity signals
Registry
Cites
Statistics
Verification
Claims the paper makes
Claims other papers make about this one
Each is checked against this paper’s own text: does it say what the citing paper says it does?
In the citing paper
“the frontal lobe capacity for internally guided behavior, working memory, and organizational skills do not reach full adult functional capacity until mid to late adolescence.8, 9, 10, 11, 12”
From A role for synaptic plasticity in the adolescent development of executive function (2013) · cites this paper as [11]
In the citing paper
“Executive functions governed by the PFC exhibit a prolonged period of maturation reaching fulfillment only in late adolescence.11, 130”
From A role for synaptic plasticity in the adolescent development of executive function (2013) · cites this paper as [11]
In the citing paper
“Behavioural studies show that performance of adolescents on tasks including inhibitory control (Leon-Carrion, Garcia-Orza, & Perez-Santamaria, 2004; Luna, Garver, Urban, Lazar, & Sweeney, 2004a), processing speed (Luna et al., 2004a), working memory and decision-making (Luciana, Conklin, Cooper, & Yarger, 2005;Hooper, Luciana, Conklin, & Yarger, 2004) continues to develop during adolescence.”
From Development of the adolescent brain: implications for executive function and social cognition (2006) · cites this paper as Luciana, Conklin, Cooper, & Yarger, 2005
In the citing paper
“But as individuals are required to manage increasing quantities of information, the age at which that amount of information can be effectively managed increases (Luciana et al., 2005), supporting the idea that the executive control system is taxed under high demand and that the ability to meet increasing demand increases with age.”
From Incentive Motivation, Cognitive Control, and the Adolescent Brain: Is It Time for a Paradigm Shift? (2012) · cites this paper as Luciana et al., 2005
Citations
Cites
The assessment and analysis of handedness: The Edinburgh inventory
Oldfield, R. C. (1971) · Neuropsychologia · doi:10.1016/0028-3932(71)90067-4 · Cited by 35,900
Baddeley, A. D., & Hitch, G. (1974) · Psychology of Learning and Motivation · doi:10.1016/s0079-7421(08)60452-1 · Cited by 9,860
Brain development during childhood and adolescence: a longitudinal MRI study
Giedd, J. N., Blumenthal, J., Jeffries, N. O., Castellanos, F. X., Liu, H., Zijdenbos, A., Paus, T., Evans, A. C., & Rapoport, J. L. (1999) · Nature Neuroscience · doi:10.1038/13158 · Cited by 5,552
The adolescent brain and age-related behavioral manifestations
Spear, L. P. (2000) · Neuroscience & Biobehavioral Reviews · doi:10.1016/s0149-7634(00)00014-2 · Cited by 5,433
Baddeley, A. (1992) · Science · doi:10.1126/science.1736359 · Cited by 5,258
Specific impairments of planning
Shallice, T. (1982) · Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London. B, Biological Sciences · doi:10.1098/rstb.1982.0082 · Cited by 3,741
Mnemonic coding of visual space in the monkey's dorsolateral prefrontal cortex
Funahashi, S., Bruce, C. J., & Goldman-Rakic, P. S. (1989) · Journal of Neurophysiology · doi:10.1152/jn.1989.61.2.331 · Cited by 2,685
Interhemispheric differences in the localization of psychological processes in man.
Milner, B. (1971) · British Medical Bulletin · doi:10.1093/oxfordjournals.bmb.a070866 · Cited by 2,405
The Prefrontal Cortex: Anatomy, Physiology, and Neuropsychology of the Frontal Lobe
Fuster, J. M. (1980) · Cited by 2,367
Mapping cortical change across the human life span
Sowell, E. R., Peterson, B. S., Thompson, P. M., Welcome, S. E., Henkenius, A. L., & Toga, A. W. (2003) · Nature Neuroscience · doi:10.1038/nn1008 · Cited by 2,328
Research works printed but not linked: 7
- American Psychiatric Association, 1994, Diagnostic and Satistical Manual of Mental Disorders
- Baddeley, 1974, Psychology of learning and motivation: Vol. 8, 47
- Cambridge Cognition, 2004, The Cambridge Neuropsychological Testing Automated Battery (CANTAB) subject bibliography
- Goldman-Rakic, 1987, Handbook of physiology, the nervous system, higher functions of the brain: Vol. 5, 373
- Sahakian, 1992, Computerised assessment in neuropsychiatry using CANTAB, Journal of the Royal Society of Medicine, 85, 399
- Sowell, 2003, Mapping cortical change across the human lifespan, Nature Neuroscience, 1
- Wechsler, 1991, Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children–Third Edition
Cited by
Sorted by citations
Items 401–500 of 565
Appetitive Motivation and Regulatory Processes in Adolescent Ketamine Users
Chang, H.-H., Huang, C.-L., & Ho, M. (2021) · Substance Use & Misuse · doi:10.1080/10826084.2021.1942055 · Cited by 3
Klaczynski, P. A. (2011) · Journal of Experimental Child Psychology · doi:10.1016/j.jecp.2010.10.010 · Cited by 3
Dual Cognitive Processes and Alcohol and Drug Misuse in Transitioning Adolesence
Krank, M. D. (2009) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-1-4419-0748-6_16 · Cited by 3
Working Memory Capacity and Teaching and Learning of Stoichiometry
Chang, F. S., & Karpudewan, M. (2020) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-981-15-5155-0_13 · Cited by 3
Timmer, S. G., & Urquiza, A. J. (2013) · Child maltreatment · doi:10.1007/978-94-007-7404-9_3 · Cited by 3
Impact of adolescent media multitasking on cognition and driving safety
Stavrinos, D., McManus, B., Underhill, A. T., & Lechtreck, M. T. (2019) · Human Behavior and Emerging Technologies · doi:10.1002/hbe2.143 · Cited by 5
Minke, K. M., & Woodford, J. (2020) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/9781108235532.030 · Cited by 6
School-Based Interventions for Refugee Children and Adolescents
Teja, Z., & Worrell, F. C. (2020) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/9781108235532.036 · Cited by 2
Bablekou, Z., Chrysochoou, E., Kazi, S., Masoura, E. V., & Tsigilis, N. (2025) · Cognitive Development · doi:10.1016/j.cogdev.2025.101614 · Cited by 2
Wu, J. S., Dong, X., Walshe, E. A., Winston, F. K., & Ryerson, M. S. (2025) · Transportation Research Record Journal of the Transportation Research Board · doi:10.1177/03611981251352759 · Cited by 2
Effective Bullying Prevention and Intervention Strategies for School Professionals
Swearer, S. M., Garcia, A. G., Damme, A. M., Palmon, S., Asay, N. J., & Scalora, M. J. (2020) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/9781108235532.023 · Cited by 2
Rising to the Challenge: A School Psychology for All Students
Worrell, F. C., Dixson, D. D., & Hughes, T. L. (2020) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/9781108235532.037 · Cited by 2
Systematic Review of the Longitudinal Sensitivity of Precision Tasks in Visual Working Memory
Ades, J., & Mishra, J. (2022) · Vision · doi:10.3390/vision6010007 · Cited by 2
Claire, H. (2020) · Elsevier eBooks · doi:10.1016/b978-0-12-814411-4.00025-1 · Cited by 2
A Neo-Piagetian Approach to Social Cognition Development
Swentosky, A. J. (2008) · D-Scholarship@Pitt (University of Pittsburgh) · Cited by 2
Antonova, A. A., Абсатова, К. А., Korneev, A. A., & Kurgansky, А. V. (2015) · Human Physiology · doi:10.1134/s0362119715020036 · Cited by 2
The Balance Between n-6 and n-3 and its Relation to Executive Function
Sheppard, K. W., & Cheatham, C. L. (2019) · Elsevier eBooks · doi:10.1016/b978-0-12-815238-6.00004-3 · Cited by 2
Early Adolescent Development: A Content Analysis of Adolescent Development Textbooks
Djang, L. J. (2011) · Cited by 2
Chapitre 3. Le développement cognitif et le développement moral
Lehalle, H. (2014) · Les Presses de l'Université de Montréal eBooks · doi:10.4000/books.pum.5175 · Cited by 2
Korneev, A. A., & Ломакин, Д. И. (2018) · National Psychological Journal · doi:10.11621/npj.2018.0312 · Cited by 2
School Settings that Facilitate High Teacher Expectations
Rubie-Davies, C. M., & Flint, A. (2020) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/9781108235532.015 · Cited by 4
Szilagyi, M. A., & Jee, S. H. (2011) · American Academy of Pediatrics eBooks · doi:10.1542/9781581105650-part01-ch29 · Cited by 2
Inhibitory control and working memory in children adopted from psychosocially depriving institutions
Merz, E. C. (2012) · D-Scholarship@Pitt (University of Pittsburgh) · Cited by 2
Simmonds, D. J. (2015) · D-Scholarship@Pitt (University of Pittsburgh) · Cited by 2
Predicting Arithmetic Performance from Age and Executive Function Skills
Molzhon, A. (2010) · VCU Scholars Compass (Virginia Commonwealth University) · doi:10.25772/g5hj-gb29 · Cited by 2
The Effect of Multitasking on Children’s Noncognitive Skills
Suziedelyte, A. (2016) · Palgrave Macmillan US eBooks · doi:10.1057/9781137381446_5 · Cited by 2
Cech, D. J., & Martin, S. “. (2011) · Elsevier eBooks · doi:10.1016/b978-1-4160-4978-4.00009-0 · Cited by 2
Principles of Prevention and Intervention to Close Discipline Gaps in Schools
Gregory, A., & Skiba, R. J. (2020) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/9781108235532.024 · Cited by 5
Associations between working memory and simple addition in kindergarteners and first graders
Lee, C., Cheung, K.-Y., Lau, H.-Y., Lui, T., Mak, H.-C., & Yuen, P.-L. (2021) · Current Psychology · doi:10.1007/s12144-021-01362-x · Cited by 1
Attention and Executive Functions Performance in Postsecondary Students with AD/HD and Dyslexia
Silvestri, R. (2011) · QSpace (Queen's University Library) · Cited by 2
The learner profile of a teenage cell phone user
Oelofse, C. H. (2009) · UpSpace Institutional Repository (University of Pretoria) · Cited by 2
Using a Field Experiment to Understand Skill Formation in the Adolescent YearsPreprint
Joensen, J. S., List, J. A., Samek, A., & Uchida, H. (2022) · SSRN Electronic Journal · doi:10.2139/ssrn.4049909 · Cited by 2
School-aged children's awareness of their own working memory contents
Blume, C. L. (2018) · doi:10.32469/10355/67672 · Cited by 2
Delayed developmental maturation of frontal cortical circuits impacts decision-makingPreprint
Mastro, K. J., Lee, W.-C., Wang, W., Stevens, B., & Sabatini, B. L. (2024) · bioRxiv (Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory) · doi:10.1101/2024.05.24.595609 · Cited by 2
Lederman, S. G., & Torff, B. (2016) · Advances in higher education and professional development book series · doi:10.4018/978-1-5225-0204-3.ch006 · Cited by 1
Supporting Teachers in Tier 1 Instruction: Use of Coaching and Formative Assessment
Lekwa, A. J., & Reddy, L. A. (2020) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/9781108235532.008 · Cited by 1
Toplak, M. E. (2021) · Elsevier eBooks · doi:10.1016/b978-0-12-816636-9.00001-3 · Cited by 1
Lyons, K., Ho, W., Saljoughi, S., Owen, A., Stevenson, R., & Stojanoski, B. B. (2026) · Developmental Neuroscience · doi:10.1159/dne/aclag002 · Cited by 1
Decoding the impact of aging on the interaction between visual attention and working memory
Balagué‐Marmaña, M., Martínez-Garcia, M., & Dempere‐Marco, L. (2025) · Scientific Reports · doi:10.1038/s41598-025-00305-x · Cited by 1
No differences in executive functions between female and male young talented football players
Lehmann, J., & Pietsch, S. (2025) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2025.1635329 · Cited by 1
Clinical Validity of the Children's Category Test-Level 2 in a Mixed Sample of School-Aged Children
Hundal, J. S., & Morris, J. (2011) · Archives of Clinical Neuropsychology · doi:10.1093/arclin/acr031 · Cited by 1
A Functional Neuroimaging Study of Working Memory in Children with Chronic Kidney Disease
Harrell, W. (2019) · Carolina Digital Repository (University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill) · doi:10.17615/vxyj-4z02 · Cited by 1
Chatting with friends online while watching a video: What and how much information is retained?
Lin, L., & Bigenho, C. (2013) · Illinois Digital Environment for Access to Learning and Scholarship (University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign) · doi:10.9776/13133 · Cited by 1
Revisiting syntactic development in deaf and hearing children from a dependency approach
Yan, J. (2017) · Physics of Life Reviews · doi:10.1016/j.plrev.2017.06.011 · Cited by 1
Preventing and Minimizing Stereotype Threat in School Settings
Crosby, J. R. (2020) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/9781108235532.017 · Cited by 1
Executive Function and School Performance
Riccio, C. A., & Castro, M. J. (2020) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/9781108235532.005 · Cited by 2
Broadening the Focus of School Psychology Practice
Worrell, F. C., Hughes, T. L., & Dixson, D. D. (2020) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/9781108235532.001 · Cited by 1
Adolescent Suicidal Behavior in Schools: What to Know and What to Do
Mazza, J. J., & Miller, D. N. (2020) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/9781108235532.020 · Cited by 1
Self-Regulated Learning in School Contexts
Cleary, T. J., Callan, G. L., & Pawlo, E. R. (2020) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/9781108235532.012 · Cited by 1
Возрастные особенности запоминания последовательности движений, заданной зрительным образцом
Korneev, A. A., Ломакин, Д. И., & Курганский, А. В. (2020) · Психологические исследования · doi:10.54359/ps.v13i69.457 · Cited by 1
Lee, J. J., & Flouri, E. (2023) · Children and Youth Services Review · doi:10.1016/j.childyouth.2023.106873 · Cited by 1
McMillan, S. J., Venticinque, J. S., & Toglia, M. P. (2024) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/oso/9780192882578.003.0011 · Cited by 1
School Psychologists in Early Childhood Settings
Alfonso, V. C., Ruby, S. F., Wissel, A. M., & Davari, J. (2020) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/9781108235532.033 · Cited by 1
Addressing “Won’t Do” Issues in Mathematics
Skinner, C. H., Wright, S. P., & McCallum, E. (2020) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/9781108235532.003 · Cited by 1
Cross-Race/Ethnic Friendships in School
Graham, S., & Kogachi, K. (2020) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/9781108235532.011 · Cited by 1
Vuontela, V. (2008) · Työväentutkimus Vuosikirja · Cited by 1
Adolescent Task Management: Multitasking and Social Media in the Student Search Process
Kurtenbach, J. (2013) · doi:10.12794/metadc500064 · Cited by 1
Executive Function and Early Numeracy in Preschoolers: Can Training Help?
Prager, E. O. (2016) · University of Minnesota Digital Conservancy (University of Minnesota) · Cited by 1
Modecki, K. L., & Uink, B. N. (2017) · Wiley eBooks · doi:10.1002/9781118554470.ch24 · Cited by 1
Learning and plasticity in adolescence
Fuhrmann, D. (2017) · UCL Discovery (University College London) · Cited by 1
Kouklari, E.-C. (2017) · Greenwich Academic Literature Archive (University of Greenwich) · Cited by 1
Luciana, M. M. (2018) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-3-319-33228-4_21 · Cited by 1
Self-citationDuarte, C. E. M. (2021) · Gredos (University of Salamanca) · doi:10.14201/gredos.149617 · Cited by 1
The adolescent brain : neurocognitive development and subject-related factors
Keulers, E. H. H. (2010) · Research Publications (Maastricht University) · doi:10.26481/dis.20101203ek
The Neurodevelopment Of Basic Sensory Processing And Integration In Autism Spectrum Disorder
Brandwein, A. B. (2014) · CUNY Academic Works (City University of New York)
Cortical and Subcortical correlates of emotional control across adolescent development
Porter, J. N. (2013) · University of Minnesota Digital Conservancy (University of Minnesota)
Kreklewetz, K., Roesch, R. G., Viljoen, J. L., & Thornton, A. E. (2010) · Summit (Simon Fraser University)
Profiling Executive Dysfunction in Adolescents with Autism
Rogers, N. R. (2011) · Digital Commons - PCOM (Philadelphia College of Osteopathic Medicine)
Heikkilä, H. (2010) · Työväentutkimus Vuosikirja
EN HUNDS BETYDNING FOR MENNESKER MED EN ERHVERVET HJERNESKADE. TO CASES
Glintborg, C. (2015) · Psyke & Logos · doi:10.7146/pl.v35i2.22364
Learning to Inhibit: Moving From Fable to Fact?
Daehler, M. W., & Melzer, D. K. (2006) · Journal of Cognition and Development · doi:10.1207/s15327647jcd0703_3
Cassidy, A. R. (2010) · University of Minnesota Digital Conservancy (University of Minnesota)
Barreiro, C., & Alberto, M. N. M. (2012) · LA Referencia (Red Federada de Repositorios Institucionales de Publicaciones Científicas)
Matchullis, R. L. (2012) · Libraries and Cultural Resources (University of Calgary) · doi:10.5072/prism/28297
Hall, L. E. (2013) · QSpace (Queen's University Library)
Iglesias, M. P. (2011) · Tesis Doctorals en Xarxa (Consorci de Serveis Universitaris de Catalunya)
McKillop, B. (2014) · University of the Witwatersrand, Johannesburg Institutional Repository on DSpace (University of the Witwatersrand, Johannesburg)
Associations between elevated body mass index and cognitive functioning in adolescents
Painter, K. N. (2014) · CommonKnowledge Research Repository (Pacific University Oregon)
Littler, K. (2015) · Open Research Exeter (University of Exeter)
working memory, implicit learning and equipment modification
Buszard, T. (2014)
THE DEVELOPMENT OF DECEPTIVE BEHAVIOURS IN 8- TO 16-YEAR-OLDS
Evans, A. D. (2009) · TSpace (University of Toronto)
Hancock, R. (2016) · SHURA (Sheffield Hallam University Research Archive) (Sheffield Hallam University)
Acute and non-acute effects of cannabis in adolescents and adults
Mokrysz, C. (2017) · UCL Discovery (University College London)
Perceived Parental Control and Disclosure of Adolescents with Disciplinary Problems
Arshat, Z., & Ang, C. E. (2017) · Asian Social Science · doi:10.5539/ass.v13n11p42
Proulx, C., Suri, D., Heximer, S. P., Vaidya, V. A., & Lambe, E. K. (2013)
Correlatos estructurales de las alteraciones cognitivas en niños con TEA
García, F. C. (2017) · Tesis Doctorals en Xarxa (Consorci de Serveis Universitaris de Catalunya) · doi:10.6035/14023.2017.146230
Bernardi, M. (2018) · City Research Online (City University London)
Inhibición conductual, memoria de trabajo y planificación en adolescentes entre 12 y 14 años
Orozco-Zevada, M. E., & Téllez-Alanís, B. (2018) · Revista Iberoamericana ConCiencia. · doi:10.32654/concienciaepg.3-1.6
López, M. (2017) · Praxis Psy · doi:10.32995/praxispsy.vi25.131 · Cited by 1
Assessment of visuo-spatial memory in patients with schizophrenia using the Location Learning Test
Nimatoudis, J., Anousakis-Vlachochristou, N., Spyridi, S., Nassika, Z., Kyriazis, O., & Kaprinis, G. (2010) · Aristotle University Medical journal/Aristotle University Medical Journal
How Best to Serve Court-Involved Youth in Schools
Andretta, J. R. (2020) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/9781108235532.035
Coordinating Services with Nonschool Providers
Golden, M. E., & DuPaul, G. J. (2020) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/9781108235532.029
Emotional Disturbance versus Social Maladjustment
Hughes, T. L., Tansy, M. E., & Pask, E. A. (2020) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/9781108235532.021 · Cited by 1
Substance Use and Misuse Prevention: Guidance for Practitioners
Yu, S., & Sussman, S. Y. (2020) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/9781108235532.028
Impairments Related to Medical Conditions
Wodrich, D. L. (2020) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/9781108235532.026
Enhancing Reading Motivation in Schools
Zibulsky, J., & Schwartz, L. B. (2020) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/9781108235532.002
Metadata
- Authors
- Luciana, M., Conklin, H. M., Hooper, C. J., & Yarger, R. S.
- Affiliations
- University of Minnesota (US)
- Corresponding author
- Luciana, Monica
- Venue
- Child Development
- Publisher
- Oxford University Press (OUP)
- Published
- 2005-05-01
- Volume
- 76
- Issue
- 3
- Pages
- 697-712
- ISSN
- 0009-3920 (ISSN-L)
- 1467-8624
- OpenAlex
- W2143380878
- Semantic Scholar
- f1b7d7f209080093a6c39c5deab501e329aeae68
- Cited by
- 567
- References
- 81
- Citations by year
- 2026: 9 · 2025: 14 · 2024: 15 · 2023: 20 · 2022: 24 · 2021: 33 · 2020: 67 · 2019: 22 · 2018: 27 · 2017: 37 · 2016: 31 · 2015: 31 · 2014: 34 · 2013: 36 · 2012: 32
- FWCI
- 8.27
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- closed
- Licence
- Locations
- Child Development (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- Topics
- Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Cognitive Neuroscience › Neural and Behavioral Psychology Studies
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Experimental and Cognitive Psychology › Cognitive Abilities and Testing
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Neuropsychology and Physiological Psychology › Developmental and Educational Neuropsychology
- Keywords
- nonverbal working memory, executive function, adolescents, prefrontal cortex maturation, spatial working memory, recognition memory, cognitive development, levels of processing
- MeSH terms
- Adolescent, Psychology, Adolescent, Attention, Child, Child Development, Color Perception, Discrimination Learning, Female, Humans, Male, Memory, Short-Term, Orientation, Pattern Recognition, Visual, Problem Solving, Psychomotor Performance, Psychophysics, Reaction Time, Reference Values, Retention, Psychology, Prefrontal Cortex
About these checks
Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.
Statistics and arithmetic are recomputed, not judged.
Confidence bands are shown only for fields calibrated on our annotated test set. None is calibrated yet, so no band is shown.
What counts as a claim ›How we measure confidence ›How we check this ›
Are you an author, or do you see a problem with this page? Request a review
