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Cited by 2,328Neural and Behavioral Psychology StudiesChild and Adolescent Psychosocial and Emotional DevelopmentFunctional Brain Connectivity Studies

Development of the adolescent brain: implications for executive function and social cognition

Open access
Blakemore, Sarah‐Jayne, Choudhury, Suparna·2006·Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry
DOI 10.1111/j.1469-7610.2006.01611.x
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Abstract

Adolescence is a time of considerable development at the level of behaviour, cognition and the brain. This article reviews histological and brain imaging studies that have demonstrated specific changes in neural architecture during puberty and adolescence, outlining trajectories of grey and white matter development. The implications of brain development for executive functions and social cognition during puberty and adolescence are discussed. Changes at the level of the brain and cognition may map onto behaviours commonly associated with adolescence. Finally, possible applications for education and social policy are briefly considered.

Integrity signals

Registry

Crossref · 10.1111/j.1469-7610.2006.01611.x

Cites

107 of 107 references verified0 citation errors · 0 not checkable

Statistics

Nothing to recompute.

Claims the paper makes

6 of 126 cited sources checked · 6 supported · 0 flagged

  • Interpretationcitation

    The gradual decrease in grey matter density that occurs after puberty in certain brain regions has been attributed to post-pubescent synaptic pruning.

    “The gradual decrease in grey matter density that occurs after puberty in certain brain regions has been attributed to post-pubescent synaptic pruning (Giedd et al., 1999a;Sowell et al., 2001;Gogtay et al., 2004).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim1 of 3 sources checked
    • cites Giedd et al., 1999a

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

    • cites Sowell et al., 2001 source
    • cites Gogtay et al., 2004 source
  • Premisecitation

    Adolescents showed reduced recruitment of the right ventral striatum and right amygdala while anticipating responses for gains compared to adults.

    “Compared to adults, adolescents showed reduced recruitment of the right ventral striatum and right amygdala while anticipating responses for gains.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim1 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Bjork et al., 2004 source
  • Premisecitation

    Activation patterns during monetary gain notification did not differ between adolescents and adults.

    “Activation patterns during monetary gain notification did not differ between groups.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim1 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Bjork et al., 2004 source
  • Findingcitation

    A 10-20% increase in reaction time on the match-to-sample task occurred at the onset of puberty in the 10-11-year-old group of girls and in the 11-12-year-old group of boys, compared to the previous year group of each sex.

    “A 10-20% increase in reaction time on the match-tosample task occurred at the onset of puberty in the 10-11-year-old group of girls and in the 11-12-yearold group of boys, compared to the previous year group of each sex (age 9-10 and 10-11 in girls and boys, respectively) (see Figure 4).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites McGivern et al., 2002 source
  • Findingcitation

    After puberty, from age 13-14, performance on the match-to-sample task improved until it returned to the pre-pubescent level by about 16-17 years.

    “After puberty, from age 13-14, performance improved until it returned to the pre-pubescent level by the age of about 16-17 years.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites McGivern et al., 2002 source
  • May combine two claims. 32
  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim. 15
  • The quote only partly states this claim. 1

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    The prefrontal cortex is involved in self-awareness and theory of mind.

    “In addition to executive functions, there is evidence that the prefrontal cortex is involved in several other high-level cognitive capacities, including self-awareness (Ochsner, 2004) and theory of mind (Frith & Frith, 2003)”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim1 of 2 sources checked
    • cites Ochsner, 2004 source
    • cites Frith & Frith, 2003 source

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Gogtay et al. (2004) found that sensory and motor brain regions matured first, followed by the remainder of the cortex maturing from the back to the front (parietal cortex to frontal cortex), with loss of grey matter occurring last in the superior temporal cortex.

    “In terms of grey matter density, they found that sensory and motor brain regions matured first.This was followed by the remainder of the cortex maturing from the back to the front (parietal cortex to frontal cortex).The loss of grey matter occurred last in the superior temporal cortex.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim1 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Gogtay et al. (2004) source

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation

    The amygdala has consistently been associated with emotion processing.

    “The amygdala has consistently been associated with emotion processing (Dolan, 2002;Phillips, Drevets, Rauch, & Lane, 2003).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim1 of 2 sources checked
    • cites Dolan, 2002 source
    • cites Phillips et al., 2003 source

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Adolescence is characterised by dramatic changes in identity, self-consciousness and cognitive flexibility.

    “This transition from childhood to adulthood is also characterised by dramatic changes in identity, self-consciousness and cognitive flexibility (Rutter & Rutter, 1993).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Rutter & Rutter, 1993

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    In an MRI study comparing children of average age 9 and adolescents of average age 14, older children had higher white matter volume in frontal and parietal cortex, while younger children had higher grey matter volume in the same regions.

    “The results showed a higher volume of white matter in the frontal cortex and parietal cortex in the older children than in the younger group.The younger group, by contrast, had a higher volume of grey matter in the same regions.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Sowell et al., 1999 source

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Interpretationreasoning

    The linear increase in white matter with age has consistently been interpreted as reflecting continued axonal myelination during childhood and adolescence.

    “and in light of histological studies, this has consistently been interpreted as reflecting continued axonal myelination during childhood and adolescence.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • The quote only partly states this claim.

    Premisecitation

    Giedd et al. (1999a) longitudinal MRI study on 145 healthy boys and girls aged about 4 to 22 years revealed heterochronous grey matter development during adolescence.

    “Individual growth patterns revealed heterochronous grey matter development during adolescence.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Giedd et al. (1999a)

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Frontal lobe grey matter volume increased during pre-adolescence with a peak around 12 years for males and 11 years for females, followed by a decline during post-adolescence.

    “The volume of grey matter in the frontal lobe increased during pre-adolescence with a peak occurring at around 12 years for males and 11 years for females.This was followed by a decline during post-adolescence.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Giedd et al. (1999a)

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationcitation

    Synaptic pruning occurs throughout adolescence and results in a net decrease in synaptic density in the frontal lobes during this time.

    “According to these data, synaptic pruning occurs throughout adolescence and results in a net decrease in synaptic density in the frontal lobes during this time.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Axons in the frontal cortex continue to be myelinated well into adolescence, whereas sensory and motor brain regions become fully myelinated in the first few years of life.

    “Whereas sensory and motor brain regions become fully myelinated in the first few years of life, although the volume of brain tissue remains stable, axons in the frontal cortex continue to be myelinated well into adolescence (Yakovlev & Lecours, 1967).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Yakovlev & Lecours, 1967

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationcitation

    Studies suggest perturbation in grey matter density development that more or less coincides with the onset of puberty; at puberty, grey matter volume in the frontal lobe reaches a peak, followed by a plateau after puberty and then a decline throughout adolescence continuing until early adulthood.

    “Thus, rather than a simple linear change in grey matter with age, studies suggest perturbation in grey matter density development that more or less coincides with the onset of puberty.At puberty, grey matter volume in the frontal lobe reaches a peak, followed by a plateau after puberty and then a decline throughout adolescence continuing until early adulthood.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Luna et al. showed that performance on an oculomotor task undergoes a large improvement from childhood to adolescence, followed by a plateau between adolescence and early adulthood.

    “Luna et al., for example, showed that performance on an oculomotor task undergoes a large improvement from childhood to adolescence, followed by a plateau between adolescence and early adulthood (Luna et al., 2004a).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Luna et al., 2004a

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationcitation

    After puberty, excess synapses are pruned into specialised, efficient networks, which may explain the post-pubescent improvement on the match-to-sample task.

    “Only later, after puberty, are the excess synapses pruned into specialised, efficient networks which may explain the post-pubescent improvement on this table (McGivern et al., 2002).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites McGivern et al., 2002 source

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationcitation

    The increase in grey matter at puberty reflects a sudden increase in the number of synapses; after puberty excess synapses are eliminated, resulting in a steady decline in grey matter density.

    “In other words, the increase in grey matter at puberty reflects a sudden increase in the number of synapses.At some point after puberty, there is a process of refinement such that these excess synapses are eliminated (Huttenlocher, 1979), resulting in a steady decline in grey matter density.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Huttenlocher, 1979

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Sowell et al. (2003) found a reduction in grey matter density in the dorsal prefrontal, parietal and temporal cortices, accompanied by an increase in white matter.

    “The results revealed a reduction in grey matter density in the dorsal prefrontal, parietal and temporal cortices, which was accompanied by an increase in white matter.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Sowell et al., 2003 source

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Interpretationreasoning

    Accumulating new social experiences may influence the development of social cognitive processes.

    “Accumulating new social experiences, for example, when entering a new school, may influence the development of social cognitive processes.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    In a longitudinal study, boys had 10% greater total cortical grey matter volume than girls, but developmental trajectories of grey and white matter volume were not significantly different.

    “For example, in a longitudinal study, it was found that boys had 10% greater total cortical grey matter volume than girls, but that developmental trajectories of grey and white matter volume were not significantly different (Giedd et al., 1999a).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Giedd et al., 1999a

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Thompson et al. (2000) found a localised grey matter decrease in the frontal cortex in the older group (11 to 15 years), providing further evidence of a sharp acceleration of grey matter density loss between childhood and adolescence in dorsal frontal cortex.

    “In the older group (11 to 15 years) a localised grey matter decrease in the frontal cortex was observed.This study provided further evidence of a sharp acceleration of grey matter density loss between childhood and adolescence in dorsal frontal cortex.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Thompson et al. (2000) source

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    A significant age-related increase in white matter volume in the left inferior frontal gyrus was found in boys, but no significant volumetric changes were found in girls in any frontal regions.

    “A significant age-related increase in white matter volume in the left IFG was found in boys but no significant volumetric changes were found in girls in any frontal regions (see Figure 3).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Blanton et al., 2004 source

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    In Mackinlay et al. (2003), significant improvement in efficiency and quality of strategies was found between ages 6 and 10; between ages 10 and 14 there was no significant change; the adult group (mean age 25) significantly outperformed the children.

    “A significant improvement in both the efficiency and quality of strategies was found between the ages of 6 and 10.However, between the ages of 10 and 14, there was no significant change in performance.The adult group (mean age 25), on the other hand, significantly outperformed the children.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Mackinlay, Charman, & Karmiloff-Smith, 2003

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    The authors suggested that prospective memory continues to develop during adolescence, in line with the notion of frontal maturation in the brain.

    “The authors therefore suggested that prospective memory continues to develop during adolescence, in line with the notion of frontal maturation in the brain.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Mackinlay, Charman, & Karmiloff-Smith, 2003

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationreasoning

    The main changes observed in the adolescent brain are a non-linear reduction in frontal grey matter density and a simultaneous linear increase in white matter.

    “The main changes that have been observed are a non-linear reduction in frontal grey matter density and a simultaneous linear increase in white matter.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Prospective memory is associated with frontal lobe activity and has been shown to develop through childhood.

    “Prospective memory is associated with frontal lobe activity (Burgess, Veitch, Costello, & Shallice, 2000) and has been shown to develop through childhood as we develop our future-oriented thought and action (Ellis & Kvavilashvili, 2000).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 2 sources checked
    • cites Burgess, Veitch, Costello, & Shallice, 2000 source
    • cites Ellis & Kvavilashvili, 2000

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Improvement during adolescence was observed on tasks of selective attention, working memory and problem solving, whereas strategic behaviour as tested by the Tower of London task seemed to have been formed earlier in childhood.

    “Improvement during adolescence was observed on tasks of selective attention, working memory and problem solving, whereas strategic behaviour, as tested by the Tower of London task (Shallice, 1982), seemed to have been formed earlier in childhood.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Shallice, 1982 source

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation

    Sensitive periods for learning phonemes of one's mother tongue occur in the first six months of life.

    “For example, sensitive periods for learning phonemes of one's mother tongue occur in the first six months of life (Kuhl et al., 1992)”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Kuhl et al., 1992 source

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Children performed worse on the verbal fluency task and had on average 60% greater activation in the left inferior frontal cortex and the dorsolateral prefrontal cortex than did adults.

    “The results of this study revealed that children performed worse on the task and had on average 60% greater activation in the left inferior frontal cortex and the dorsolateral prefrontal cortex than did adults.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Gaillard et al., 2000 source

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    fMRI data revealed age-related increases in activation in the left inferior frontal gyrus extending to the orbitofrontal cortex and age-related decreases in activation in both the left superior and middle frontal gyrus extending to the cingulate.

    “fMRI data revealed age-related increases in activation in the left inferior frontal gyrus extending to the orbitofrontal cortex and, consistent with Casey et al.'s results, age-related decreases in activation in both the left superior and middle frontal gyrus extending to the cingulate.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Tamm, Menon, & Reiss, 2002 source

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationown data

    These results demonstrated a dissociation between prefrontal areas in the development of inhibitory control and a negative correlation between age and brain activation.

    “These results demonstrated a dissociation between prefrontal areas in the development of inhibitory control and a negative correlation between age and brain activation.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based).

    Interpretationreasoning

    If one group's task performance is worse than that of the other group, then any difference in brain activity between the two groups is difficult to interpret.

    “If one group's task performance is worse than that of the other group, then any difference in brain activity between the two groups is difficult to interpret.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisereasoning

    Activation in the dorsolateral prefrontal cortex could be negatively correlated with behavioural performance, while orbitofrontal cortex activation increased with improvement in behavioural performance.

    “Thus the activation in the dorsolateral prefrontal cortex could be negatively correlated with behavioural performance (as interpreted from error rates), as distinct from the orbitofrontal cortex whose activation increased with improvement in behavioural performance.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Casey et al., 1997 source

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation

    Much of the literature has focused on early development of facial recognition.

    “Much of the literature has focused on early development of facial recognition (Nelson, 1987).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Nelson, 1987 source

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    In the second Go/No-Go study, there was no difference in accuracy on the task with age, but reaction times to inhibit responses successfully significantly decreased with age.

    “While there was no difference in accuracy on the task with age, reaction times to inhibit responses successfully significantly decreased with age.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Tamm, Menon, & Reiss, 2002 source

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Adolescents showed greater activation in the dorsolateral prefrontal cortex during 'not good' ideas and there was a significant correlation between DLPFC activation and reaction time.

    “On the other hand, adolescents showed greater activation in the dorsolateral prefrontal cortex (DLPFC) during the 'not good' ideas and there was a significant correlation between DLPFC activation and reaction time.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Baird, Fugelsang, & Bennett, 2005

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Recognition of fear and disgust showed the greatest linear improvements with age, while there was no improvement in the ability to recognise sad and angry expressions in this age range.

    “In particular, recognition of fear and disgust showed the greatest linear improvements with age, while there was no improvement in the ability to recognise sad and angry expressions in this age range.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Lawrence et al., submitted

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    This improvement was followed by a decline around the age of puberty; between ages 10 and 12, participants showed a drop in accuracy of over 10%.

    “However, this was followed by a decline around the age of puberty.Between ages 10 and 12, participants showed a drop in accuracy of over 10%.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Carey et al., 1980 source

  • May combine two claims.

    Premiseown data

    While the location of activation was essentially the same for both age groups, there was a significantly higher volume of prefrontal activation in children than in adults, specifically in the dorsolateral prefrontal cortex and extending into the cingulate.

    “While the location of activation was essentially the same for both age groups, there was a significantly higher volume of prefrontal activation in children than in adults, specifically in the dorsolateral prefrontal cortex and extending into the cingulate.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Casey et al., 1997 source

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation

    Recognition of facial expressions of emotion is one area of social cognition that has been investigated during adolescence.

    “Recognition of facial expressions of emotion is one area of social cognition that has been investigated during adolescence (see Herba & Phillips, 2004).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Herba & Phillips, 2004 source

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisereasoning

    One remaining issue is the confounding effect of task performance differences in fMRI studies.

    “One remaining issue is the confounding effect of task performance differences in fMRI studies.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S4 (based).

    Interpretationnone given

    A richer account of changes in adolescent learning, and strategic and social behaviour requires a multidisciplinary approach that recognises the complex interactions between genetics, brain structure, physiology and chemistry and the environment.

    “In this paper, we have focused on research in developmental cognitive neuroscience, but a richer account of changes in adolescent learning, and strategic and social behaviour requires a multidisciplinary approach that recognises the complex interactions between genetics, brain structure, physiology and chemistry and the environment.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based).

    Interpretationnone given

    The finding that changes in brain structure continue into adolescence and early adulthood challenged accepted views.

    “The finding that changes in brain structure continue into adolescence and early adulthood challenged accepted views and has given rise to a recent spate of investigations into the way cognition might change as a consequence.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationcitation

    Both the brain's emotion processing and cognitive appraisal systems develop during adolescence.

    “These fMRI results suggest that both the brain's emotion processing and cognitive appraisal systems develop during adolescence.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

    Interpretationreasoning

    The finding that changes in brain structure continue into adolescence and early adulthood has given rise to a recent spate of investigations into the way cognition might change as a consequence.

    “The finding that changes in brain structure continue into adolescence and early adulthood challenged accepted views and has given rise to a recent spate of investigations into the way cognition might change as a consequence.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisereasoning

    Neither of these studies contained an adult or a younger child group, so comparisons before and after puberty of the neural processing of facial emotion could not be made.

    “Neither of these studies contained an adult or a younger child group, so comparisons before and after puberty of the neural processing of facial emotion could not be made.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S4 (based).

    Interpretationnone given

    Studying the development of adolescent cognition using complementary in vivo methods that exploit the advantages of each-such as combining fMRI with electroencephalography (EEG) or diffusion tensor imaging (DTI)-within a theoretical framework that regards motor, affective, social and perceptual functions as intertwined promises to further inform our understanding of typical and atypical adolescent

    “Studying the development of adolescent cognition using complementary in vivo methods that exploit the advantages of each -such as combining fMRI with electroencephalography (EEG) or diffusion tensor imaging (DTI) -within a theoretical framework that regards motor, affective, social and perceptual functions as intertwined promises to further inform our understanding of typical and atypical”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation

    Longitudinal studies of the effect of early deprivation on the cognitive development of Romanian adoptees in the UK have begun to investigate this question.

    “Longitudinal studies of the effect of early deprivation on the cognitive development of Romanian adoptees in the UK have begun to investigate this question (O'Connor & Rutter, 2000).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites O'Connor & Rutter, 2000 source

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisereasoning

    There was no exploration of how age affects emotion expression processing.

    “Furthermore, there was no exploration of how age affects emotion expression processing.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based). May combine two claims.

    Interpretationnone given

    The study of the development of executive function and social cognition beyond childhood is a new but rapidly evolving field with applications for medical diagnosis, education and social policy.

    “The study of the development of executive function and social cognition beyond childhood is a new but rapidly evolving field with applications for medical diagnosis, education and social policy.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim
47 of 47

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    Myelin acts as an insulator and massively increases the speed of transmission (up to 100 fold) of electrical impulses from neuron to neuron.

    “Myelin acts as an insulator and massively increases the speed of transmission (up to 100 fold) of electrical impulses from neuron to neuron.”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    Synaptic pruning is essential for the fine-tuning of functional networks of brain tissue, rendering the remaining synaptic circuits more efficient.

    “Synaptic pruning is believed to be essential for the fine-tuning of functional networks of brain tissue, rendering the remaining synaptic circuits more efficient.”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    Synaptic pruning underlies sound categorisation.

    “Synaptic pruning is thought to underlie sound categorisation, for example.”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    Very few studies have addressed the effect of puberty and adolescence on social cognitive abilities.

    “So far, very few studies have addressed the effect of puberty and adolescence on social cognitive abilities.”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    There has been a lack of attention to the development of social cognition during adolescence.

    “So far there has been a lack of attention to the development of social cognition during adolescence.”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    Relatively little is known about the continued development of emotion processing during adolescence.

    “Relatively little is known about the continued development of emotion processing during adolescence.”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    Adolescents are renowned for engaging in risky behaviour.

    “Adolescents are renowned for engaging in risky behaviour.”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    Anecdotally, adolescents are known to be poor at decision-making, especially when risk is involved.

    “Anecdotally, adolescents are known to be poor at decision-making, especially when risk is involved.”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    There are major changes in hormones at puberty.

    “In addition to neural development, there are major changes in hormones at puberty.”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    Current theoretical and philosophical underpinnings of criminal law are grounded in the principle of autonomy.

    “Current theoretical and philosophical underpinnings of criminal law are grounded in the principle of autonomy: individuals are regarded as rational autonomous human beings who can 'choose' their actions and are therefore held responsible by criminal law.”
10 of 10

Claims other papers make about this one

Each is checked against this paper’s own text: does it say what the citing paper says it does?

  • Young adolescents may be less cognitively skilled at managing diverse messages from multiple sources.

    “young people may be less cognitively skilled in managing the diverse messages from multiple sources during this time of development (Blakemore & Choudhury, 2006).”

    From Cultural Socialization Across Contexts: Family–Peer Congruence and Adolescent Well-Being (2016) · cites this paper as Blakemore & Choudhury, 2006

    The Development of executive function section (page unavailable) reports that selective attention, working memory, and decision-making continue to develop during adolescence, supporting the claim that young people may be less skilled at some cognitive tasks. It does not examine how they manage diverse messages from multiple sources, so that specific application is not established. (LLM, conf=0.82)

    Experimental — accuracy not yet measured

  • Brain undergoes vast reshaping during adolescence including pruning, myelination, volumetric changes, and changes in functional connectivity.

    “In addition to the well-known hormonal fluctuations that occur during adolescence, the brain undergoes vast re-shaping, including pruning, myelination, volumetric changes in various regions and changes in functional connectivity (Blakemore, 2012;Blakemore and Choudhury, 2006;Casey et al., 2008;Spear, 2000) (Fig. 3).”

    From The Microbiota-Gut-Brain Axis (2019) · cites this paper as Blakemore and Choudhury, 2006

    The sections ‘The first experiments on adolescent brains’ and ‘Brain changes continue after adolescence’ describe synaptic pruning, continued frontal myelination, and changes in grey and white matter during adolescence. ‘Linear increases in white matter during adolescence’ describes changes in structural connections, but the copy does not establish the claimed changes in functional connectivity; its fMRI discussion concerns activation patterns. Page numbers were not provided. (LLM, conf=0.86)

    Experimental — accuracy not yet measured

  • Relationships shape cognitive and neurobiological networks that support social and executive functioning.

    “Over time, relationships also shape the cognitive and neurobiological networks that support social and executive functioning”

    From Improving relationship quality in group care settings: The impact of implementing the CARE model (2020) · cites this paper as Blakemore & Choudhury, 2006

    The 'Development of social cognition' section (page unavailable) says that the social world can leave an imprint on synaptic pruning and that new social experiences may influence social cognitive development. The 'Development of executive function' section links executive-function development to frontal-cortex maturation, but does not say that relationships shape those networks. The citing sentence also states the relationship as fact where the paper hedges the effect of social experiences. (LLM, conf=0.85)

    Experimental — accuracy not yet measured

  • Executive functions such as working memory, attention and response inhibition continue to mature until late adolescence.

    “Executive functions such as working memory, attention and response inhibition, continue to mature until late adolescence (Blakemore and Choudhury, 2006, Casey et al., 2008).”

    From Weaknesses in executive functioning predict the initiating of adolescents' alcohol use (2015) · cites this paper as Blakemore and Choudhury, 2006

  • The combined effect of these maturational processes might be to fine-tune neural circuitry in the prefrontal cortex and other cortical regions, and thus increase efficiency of the cognitive systems they subserve.

    “The combined effect of these maturational processes might be to fine-tune neural circuitry in the PFC and other cortical regions, and thus increase efficiency of the cognitive systems they subserve (see Blakemore and Choudhury, 2006 for review).”

    From Social cognitive development during adolescence (2006) · cites this paper as Blakemore and Choudhury, 2006

Self-check

Percentages, sums and reported differences re-computed from the paper’s own numbers.

Each contradiction between two passages listed here was confirmed by an independent check.

  • Comparison group falls outside the stated participant ages

    Minor

    The match-to-sample study is said to include children aged 10-17, but its reported comparison includes a group aged 9-10. That group includes an age below the stated lower limit.

  • One journal article is attributed to two different author lists

    Minor

    Two references give the same title, journal, volume and pages but identify different authors. The bibliographic details cannot identify two distinct articles as presented.

2 of 2

Cites

Flagged first, then by citations

Research works printed but not linked: 6

  1. Baird A., 2005, What were you thinking: An fMRI study of adolescent decision‐making
  2. Coleman J.C., 1990, The nature of adolescence
  3. Harris P., 1995, Folk psychology, 207
  4. Mackinlay R., 2003, Remembering to remember: A developmental study of prospective memory in a multitasking paradigm
  5. Paus T., 1999, Brain development during childhood and adolescence: A longitudinal MRI study, Nature Neuroscience, 2, 861, 10.1038/13158 · DOI · Paper page
  6. Rutter M., 1993, Developing minds

Cited by

Sorted by citations

Related

Authors
Blakemore, S., & Choudhury, S.
Affiliations
University College London (GB)
Corresponding author
Blakemore, Sarah‐Jayne
ORCID
Blakemore, Sarah‐Jayne
Venue
Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry
Publisher
Wiley
Published
2006-02-22
Volume
47
Issue
3-4
Pages
296-312
ISSN
  • 0021-9630 (ISSN-L)
  • 1469-7610
DOI
10.1111/j.1469-7610.2006.01611.x
OpenAlex
W2150432411
Cited by
2,328
References
107
Citations by year
2026: 104 · 2025: 99 · 2024: 141 · 2023: 130 · 2022: 134 · 2021: 134 · 2020: 185 · 2019: 185 · 2018: 147 · 2017: 138 · 2016: 157 · 2015: 136 · 2014: 137 · 2013: 120 · 2012: 84
FWCI
3.77
Type
journal article
Language
en
Open access
Licence
onlinelibrary.wiley.com/termsAndConditions#vor (vor)
Locations
  • Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry (publishedVersion)
  • PubMed (publishedVersion)
  • UCL Discovery (University College London) (submittedVersion)
Funders
Medical Research Council
Topics
  • Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Cognitive Neuroscience › Neural and Behavioral Psychology Studies
  • Social Sciences › Psychology › Clinical Psychology › Child and Adolescent Psychosocial and Emotional Development
  • Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Cognitive Neuroscience › Functional Brain Connectivity Studies
Keywords
adolescent brain development, puberty, executive function, social cognition, white matter development, neural architecture, adolescence, social policy
MeSH terms
Adolescent, Brain, Cognition, Humans, Magnetic Resonance Imaging, Social Perception

About these checks

Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.

Claims read by deepseek-v4.1-flash under definition version 3 (extract-v3) on 2026-10-11.

Classified by jev-1.13-20260917 (gold-guideline-v0.2) on 2026-10-11.

Cited sources are checked by gpt-6-sol.

Statistics and arithmetic are recomputed, not judged.

Confidence bands are shown only for fields calibrated on our annotated test set. None is calibrated yet, so no band is shown.

What counts as a claim ›How we measure confidence ›How we check this ›

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