Effect of Foster Care on Young Children’s Language Learning
Open accessAbstract
This report examines 174 young children’s language outcomes in the Bucharest Early Intervention Project, the first randomized trial of foster placement after institutional care. Age of foster placement was highly correlated with language outcomes. Placement by 15 months led to similar expressive and receptive language test scores as typical age peers at 30 and 42 months. Placement from 15 to 24 months also led to dramatic language improvement. In contrast, children placed after 24 months had the same severe language delays as children in institutional care. Language samples at 42 months confirmed that placement after 24 months led to lower expressive skill.
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Foster care intervention in the BEIP is associated with increased language (e.g., word identification).
“↑ Language (e.g., word identification) (Windsor et al., 2007(Windsor et al., , 2011(Windsor et al., , 2013) )”
From Resilience following severe early life neglect: A review of longitudinal evidence from the Bucharest Early Intervention Project (2026) · cites this paper as Windsor et al., 2011
The Discussion reports markedly improved language outcomes at 30 and 42 months for BEIP children placed in foster care by 24 months, but not for those placed later. The Methods describe object recognition and labeling tasks, while the Results report overall receptive and expressive scores; they do not establish an increase in a separately measured word-identification outcome. (LLM, conf=0.83)
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredPoor expressive and receptive language are consistently observed in neglected children and are more pronounced than language difficulties associated with abuse.
“Poor expressive and receptive language have been consistently observed in neglected children, who exhibit language difficulties that are more pronounced than those associated with abuse.(87, 112, 113)”
From Neglect as a violation of species-expectant experience: neurodevelopmental consequences (2017) · cites this paper as [113]
Some outcomes, including language, externalizing disorders, and emotional behaviors, may not show complete catch-up and appear less amenable to intervention.
“However, there are outcome measures that may not show complete catch-up (e.g., language, externalizing disorders, emotional behaviors) (Bos, et al., 2011; Windsor, et al., 2011) and seem less amenable to intervention.”
From Risk and developmental heterogeneity in previously institutionalized children (2012) · cites this paper as Windsor, et al., 2011
Studies in this cohort have shown that although multiple areas of development are impaired among ever-institutionalized children, foster care placement leads to improvement in some areas but not in other areas, including motor function based on the results of the current study.
“Studies in this cohort have shown that although multiple areas of development are impaired among ever-institutionalized children, foster care placement leads to improvement in some areas (e.g. cognition,2,3 attachment,5,6,40, language7–9, depression, anxiety,10,12 stereotypies,11 and growth41) but not in other areas”
From Motor outcomes in children exposed to early psychosocial deprivation (2014) · cites this paper as [8]
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Cites
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“[22] examined 174 children's (institutionalized, in foster families, none institutionalized) language outcomes in the Bucharest Early Intervention Project.”
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ResultSystematic Review of the Evaluation of Foster Care Programs
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Early lexical development of children raised in institutional care in Russia
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Ertekin, Z., & Berument, S. (2019) · Applied Developmental Science · doi:10.1080/10888691.2019.1617146 · Cited by 9 · see citing works
“…have compared the developmental outcomes of children residing in institutions and in foster care (Ghera et al., 2009; Nelson & Spieker, 2013; Windsor et al., 2011), only one descriptive study focused on the different care types and school age children’s satisfaction of the care quality run…”
BackgroundResultInstitutional rearing is associated with lower general life satisfaction in adulthood
Richter, D., & Lemola, S. (2013) · Journal of Research in Personality · doi:10.1016/j.jrp.2013.11.001 · Cited by 5 · see citing works
“…many domains such as cognitive function (e.g., O’Connor, Rutter, Beckett, Keaveney, & Kreppner, 2000), language production and comprehension (e.g., Windsor et al., 2011), and to show various forms of psychopathology (Zeanah et al., 2009), and difficulties in social functioning (e.g., Rutter et…”
BackgroundSumer-Büyükabacı, Ö., Kisbu‐Sakarya, Y., Etel, E., & Selçuk, B. (2020) · Children and Youth Services Review · doi:10.1016/j.childyouth.2020.105857 · Cited by 7 · see citing works
Transcending as a driver of development
Travis, F. (2016) · Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences · doi:10.1111/nyas.13071 · Cited by 6 · see citing works
Trauma- and Stressor-Related Disorders Among Children and Adolescents
Thakur, A., Creedon, J., & Zeanah, C. H. (2016) · FOCUS The Journal of Lifelong Learning in Psychiatry · doi:10.1176/appi.focus.20150026 · Cited by 4 · see citing works
Self-citationDevelopment and institutional care
Smyke, A. T. (2012) · Developmental Medicine & Child Neurology · doi:10.1111/j.1469-8749.2012.04260.x · Cited by 6 · see citing works
“Further, in the Bucharest Early Intervention Project, placement in foster care before 24 months was significantly better than placement after for IQ(4) and attachment security,(5) while only placement before 15 months conferred such advantage for language skills.(6) Given the age of placement of the children in the cu…”
BackgroundMaguire, D., McCormack, D., Downes, C., Teggart, T., & Fosker, T. (2021) · Developmental Child Welfare · doi:10.1177/25161032211021436 · Cited by 6 · see citing works
“This mirrors other findings in the literature (e.g. Lum et al., 2018; Windsor et al., 2011).”
BackgroundResultZhukova, M., Ovchinnikova, I. V., Logvinenko, T. I., & Grigorenko, E. L. (2020) · New Directions for Child and Adolescent Development · doi:10.1002/cad.20333 · Cited by 6 · see citing works
False Belief Performance of Children Adopted Internationally
Hwa-Froelich, D. A., Matsuo, H., & Jacobs, K. (2016) · American Journal of Speech-Language Pathology · doi:10.1044/2016_ajslp-15-0152 · Cited by 6 · see citing works
Language difficulties in children and young people living in care: A systematic scoping review
Savi-Karayol, S., Botting, N., Kladouchou, V., & Morgan, G. (2025) · Child Language Teaching and Therapy · doi:10.1177/02656590251381510 · Cited by 2 · see citing works
“For example, the Bucharest Early Intervention Project (Windsor et al., 2007, 2011, 2013) found that children placed in foster care before 24 months developed language skills comparable to their non-institutionalised peers, whereas those placed later exhibited persistent delays.”
InfluentialDogru, Y. Y., Koc‐Arik, G., Doğru, O. C., & Berument, S. K. (2024) · Journal of Experimental Child Psychology · doi:10.1016/j.jecp.2024.105924 · Cited by 4 · see citing works
Communication and language in abused and institutionalized minors. A scoping review
Palazón-Carrión, E., & Sala‐Roca, J. (2020) · Children and Youth Services Review · doi:10.1016/j.childyouth.2020.104904 · Cited by 4 · see citing works
Institutionalization of Children with Disabilities in Croatia: Social Workers' Perspectives
Laklija, M., Babić, M., & Cheatham, L. P. (2020) · Child & Youth Services · doi:10.1080/0145935x.2020.1752170 · Cited by 4 · see citing works
“…faced by children resulting from institutional care, including attachment disorders (Zeanah, 2000), language delays (Goldfarb, 1944, 1945; Windsor et al, 2011), cognitive delays (O’Connor et al., 2000), eating problems (Fisher et al., 1997) and, as they aged, emotional and behavioral…”
BackgroundIMPACT OF JOINT ATTENTION ON SOCIAL‐COMMUNICATION SKILLS IN INTERNATIONALLY ADOPTED CHILDREN
Moberg, S. A., Ng, R., Johnson, D. E., & Kroupina, M. (2017) · Infant Mental Health Journal · doi:10.1002/imhj.21665 · Cited by 5 · see citing works
“Consequently, the exposure to their birth language may be reduced, inconsistent, or developmentally inappropriate and similar to children living in neglectful environments (Windsor et al., 2011).”
BackgroundAttachment Disturbances Delay Language Acquisition in Internationally Adopted Children
Jensen, R. M., Helder, E. J., & Gunnoe, M. (2016) · Adoption Quarterly · doi:10.1080/10926755.2016.1201709 · Cited by 4 · see citing works
“…& Masters, 2002; Glennen, Rosinsky-Grunhut, & Tracy, 2005; Scott, 2009; Scott, Pollock, Roberts & Krakow, 2013; Scott, Roberts, & Krakow, 2008; Windsor et al., 2011), information about typical versus atypical language development patterns for internationally adopted children remains limited…”
BackgroundInfluentialCory‐Slechta, D. A. (2018) · Advances in neurotoxicology · doi:10.1016/bs.ant.2018.03.007 · Cited by 4 · see citing works
Ahmed, S., Bowers, C., Munoz-Martin, J., Jamwal, S., Sanganahalli, B. G., Chen, K., Giuliano, L., Kaswan, Z. A. M., Hyder, F., Yang, X. W., et al. (2026) · Brain Behavior and Immunity · doi:10.1016/j.bbi.2026.106555 · Cited by 4 · see citing works
Gölcük, M., Ertekin, Z., & Berument, S. K. (2025) · Child & Youth Care Forum · doi:10.1007/s10566-025-09857-5 · Cited by 2 · see citing works
“For example, a previous study on foster care found that children placed at a later age (after 2 years old) rather than at earlier ages (before 2 years old) exhibited delayed language development (Windsor et al., 2011).”
Parent-child border separation and the road to repair: addressing a global refugee phenomenon
Jones‐Mason, K., Reyes, V., Noriega, M., & Lieberman, A. F. (2024) · Attachment & Human Development · doi:10.1080/14616734.2024.2401928 · Cited by 4 · see citing works
“…Fox et al., 2011; D. E. Johnson et al., 2010; Kreppner et al., 2001, 2007; Li et al., 2017; Perry & Donzella, 2023; Roy et al., 2000; Wade et al., 2022; Windsor et al., 2011) Institutionalized children typically exhibit lower IQ levels compared to those in foster care (van IJzendoorn et al., 2008).”
Chinn, L. K., Momotenko, D., Sukmanova, A. A., Ovchinnikova, I. V., Golovanova, I., & Grigorenko, E. (2023) · Cortex; a journal devoted to the study of the nervous system and behavior · doi:10.1016/j.cortex.2022.11.015 · Cited by 2 · see citing works
Lorio, C. M., Carta, J., & Stephens, N. (2022) · American Journal of Speech-Language Pathology · doi:10.1044/2022_ajslp-22-00082 · Cited by 2 · see citing works
Motor learning in children and adolescents institutionalized in shelters
Santos, C. M. S., Rodrigues, M. M., Fernani, D. C. G. L., Freire, A. P. C. F., Monteiro, C. B. D. M., & Prado, M. T. A. (2017) · Fisioterapia em Movimento · doi:10.1590/1980-5918.030.004.ao07 · Cited by 4 · see citing works
Institutional deprivation and neurobehavioral development in infancy
Doom, J. R., & Gunnar, M. R. (2016) · Wiley eBooks · doi:10.1002/9781118931684.ch9 · Cited by 3 · see citing works
Logvinenko, T. I., Talantseva, O. I., Volokhova, E. M., Khalaf, S., & Grigorenko, E. L. (2020) · Modelling and Data Analysis · doi:10.17759/mda.2020100102 · Cited by 2 · see citing works
Xanthaki, M., & Anagnostaki, L. (2025) · Adoption & Fostering · doi:10.1177/03085759251357018 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
“Disabled children living in institutions may face serious challenges in terms of their emotional, social and language development and are at higher risk of abuse (Laklija et al., 2020; Stogsdill, 2019; Windsor et al., 2011).”
Sravanti, L., & Mundkur, N. (2024) · Indian Journal of Psychological Medicine · doi:10.1177/02537176241253346 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
Desarrollo del lenguaje y sus factores de riesgo en niños y niñas
Santamaría, Á. (2023) · Educación y ciencia · doi:10.19053/0120-7105.eyc.2023.27.e15986 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
Li, H.-P., & Niu, C. (2022) · J. Sensors · doi:10.1155/2022/7548686 · Cited by 1
RetractedFoster children’s cognitive functioning: A follow-up comparison study at 8 years of age
Jacobsen, H., Wentzel-Larsen, T., & Bergsund, H. B. (2020) · Children and Youth Services Review · doi:10.1016/j.childyouth.2020.105342 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
Cognitive Characteristics of Institutionalized Children
이, 선., Oh, S.-W., & 조, 혜. (2014) · Korean Journal of Health Psychology · doi:10.17315/kjhp.2014.19.1.017 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
Holt-Gosselin, B., Adri, F., Humphreys, K. L., & Nelson, C. A. (2026) · Development and Psychopathology · doi:10.1017/s0954579426101837
“…as better performance on attention (Ghera et al., 2009), working memory (Bos et al., 2009), inhibitory control (McDermott et al., 2012), language (Windsor et al., 2007, 2011, 2013), and associative learning (Sheridan et al., 2018) tasks compared to children randomized to the CAUG, whereby…”
Self-citationSavi-Karayol, S., Botting, N., & Morgan, G. (2026) · First language · doi:10.1177/01427237261479804
Sanli, A. M., Ertekin, Z., Dogru, Y. Y., & Berument, S. K. (2026) · Journal of Speech Language and Hearing Research · doi:10.1044/2026_jslhr-24-00582
Wang, S., Zhou, N., Cao, H., & Lin, X. (2025) · Development and Psychopathology · doi:10.1017/s0954579425100813 · Cited by 2 · see citing works
“…of language ability identified in the current analyses also aligns with prior research showing the severe language delays among children who had extremely profound deprivation exposure (e.g., children ’ s language outcomes in the Bucharest Early Intervention Project; Windsor et al., 2011, 2013).”
Centering the Young Child: A Developmental Case for Child Welfare Reform
Harden, B. J., & Zeanah, C. H. (2025) · Families in Society The Journal of Contemporary Social Services · doi:10.1177/10443894251328144
“Severe neglect in infancy and early childhood is associated with significant delays in expressive and receptive language (Sylvestre et al., 2016), with more profound delays in children with neglect exposure that extended beyond 15 months of age (Windsor et al., 2011).”
Self-citationThe cognitive and language development of young Flemish foster children
West, D., Gypen, L., Stas, L., van Holen, F., & Vanderfaeillie, J. (2024) · Developmental Child Welfare · doi:10.1177/25161032241288478
“In Windsor et al. (2011), 174 children ’ s language outcomes were discussed.”
Severe Neonatal Opioid Withdrawal Requiring Pharmacotherapy: Impact of Region of Residence
Sankaran, D., Rawat, S., Kachelmeyer, J. L., Li, E., Reynolds, A., Rawat, M., & Chandrasekharan, P. (2022) · American Journal of Perinatology · doi:10.1055/a-1925-1659
Yaratıcı Drama Dergisi Cilt 13 Sayı 1 (Tüm dergi)
Dergisi, Y. D. (2018) · Yaratıcı Drama Dergisi · doi:10.21612/yader.2018.011
Soares, I., & Baptista, J. (2017) · Psychosozial-Verlag eBooks · doi:10.30820/9783837973570-131
Growing up with Extraordinary Challenges: Hoping for the Best in Uncertainty
Grigorenko, E. L. (2013) · Procedia - Social and Behavioral Sciences · doi:10.1016/j.sbspro.2013.08.516
Infants and Children Adopted Internationally
Hwa-Froelich, D. A. (2021) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-3-030-74985-9_20
- Authors
- Windsor, J., Benigno, J. P., Wing, C. A., Carroll, P. J., Koga, S. F., Nelson, C. A., Fox, N. A., & Zeanah, C. H.
- Affiliations
- University of Minnesota (US)
- Ohio University (US)
- The Ohio State University (US)
- University of Virginia (US)
- Boston Children's Hospital (US)
- University of Maryland, College Park (US)
- Tulane University (US)
- Corresponding author
- Windsor, Jennifer
- ORCID
- Venue
- Child Development
- Publisher
- Oxford University Press (OUP)
- Published
- 2011-07-01
- Volume
- 82
- Issue
- 4
- Pages
- 1040-1046
- ISSN
- 0009-3920 (ISSN-L)
- 1467-8624
- PMC
- PMC4088268
- OpenAlex
- W2171717454
- Cited by
- 105
- References
- 21
- Citations by year
- 2026: 3 · 2025: 6 · 2024: 4 · 2023: 5 · 2022: 7 · 2021: 4 · 2020: 11 · 2019: 8 · 2018: 9 · 2017: 6 · 2016: 11 · 2015: 4 · 2014: 6 · 2013: 12 · 2012: 6
- FWCI
- 21.36
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- green
- www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov
- Licence
- Locations
- Child Development (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- Europe PMC (PubMed Central) (acceptedVersion)
- PubMed Central (acceptedVersion)
- Funders
- National Institute of Mental Health (R01MH091363)
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Safety Research › Child Welfare and Adoption
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Developmental and Educational Psychology › Language Development and Disorders
- Social Sciences › Education › Early Childhood Education and Development
- Keywords
- foster care, institutional care, language development, expressive language, receptive language, language delay, Bucharest Early Intervention Project, early intervention, child language outcomes
- MeSH terms
- Developmental Disabilities, Child, Preschool, Female, Foster Home Care, Humans, Infant, Language Development, Language Tests, Learning, Male, Romania, Speech, Treatment Outcome, Intention to Treat Analysis
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