Future Directions in Childhood Adversity and Youth Psychopathology

Childhood trauma exposure is associated with blunted cardiac output reactivity during acute stress in a large population-based adolescent cohort.

“Using data from a large population-based cohort of adolescents, we recently replicated the association between childhood trauma exposure and blunted cardiac output reactivity during acute stress (Heleniak, Riese, Ormel, & McLaughlin, 2016).”

• cites Heleniak, Riese, Ormel, & McLaughlin, 2016Not checked yet

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Abused children recruit prefrontal regions involved in effortful control more than never-violence children when using cognitive reappraisal to regulate emotion.

“a recent study from my lab found that when trying to regulate emotional responses using cognitive reappraisal, children who had been abused recruited regions of the prefrontal cortex involved in effortful control to a greater degree than children who had never experienced violence (McLaughlin, Peverill, et al., 2015).”

• cites McLaughlin, Peverill, et al., 2015Not checked yet

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Physically or sexually abused youths show increased vascular resistance and blunted cardiac output reactivity relative to participants with no violence exposure.

“We observed a pattern of increased vascular resistance and blunted cardiac output reactivity among youths who had been physically or sexually abused relative to participants with no history of violence exposure (McLaughlin, Sheridan, Alves, & Mendes, 2014).”

• cites McLaughlin, Sheridan, Alves, & Mendes, 2014Not checked yet

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Children exposed to institutional rearing show blunted reward learning.

“In recent work in our lab, we have also observed blunted reward learning among children exposed to institutional rearing (Sheridan, McLaughlin, et al., 2016).”

• cites Sheridan, McLaughlin, et al., 2016Not checked yet

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Early environmental deprivation has a particularly pronounced impact on the development of stress response systems during the first two years of life.

“in recent work we have shown that early environmental deprivation has a particularly pronounced impact on the development of stress response systems during the first 2 years of life (McLaughlin et al., 2015).”

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Epidemiological findings indicate that childhood adversity powerfully shapes population risk for psychopathology.

“Together, findings from epidemiological studies indicate clearly that exposure to childhood adversity powerfully shapes risk for psychopathology in the population.”

Knowledge about which mechanisms linking adversity to psychopathology are common across adversity types versus specific to particular experiences is limited.

“far less is known about which of these mechanisms are common across different types of adversity versus specific to particular types of experiences.”

There is a lack of consistency in how childhood adversity is defined and measured.

“Despite the burgeoning interest and research attention devoted to childhood adversity, there is a surprising lack of consistency with regard to the definition and measurement of the construct.”

Exposure to childhood adversity accounts for a substantial share of mental disorder onsets in the population in the United States and cross-nationally.

“Finally, exposure to childhood adversity explains a substantial proportion of mental disorder onsets in the population, both in the United States and cross-nationally”

• cites Afifi et al., 2008Not checked yet

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• cites Green et al., 2010Not checked yet

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• cites Kessler et al., 2010Not checked yet

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Exposure to childhood adversity is linked to higher risk for several forms of youth psychopathology.

“Existing research has amply demonstrated that exposure to childhood adversity is associated with elevated risk for multiple forms of youth psychopathology.”

Associations between childhood adversity and common mental disorders are largely nonspecific, with similar odds across mood, anxiety, substance use, and disruptive behavior disorders.

“Fourth, the associations of childhood adversity with different types of commonly occurring mental disorders are largely nonspecific. Individuals who have experienced childhood adversity experience greater odds of developing mood, anxiety, substance use, and disruptive behavior disorders, with little meaningful variation in the strength of associations across disorder classes”

• cites Green et al., 2010Not checked yet

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• cites Kessler et al., 1997Not checked yet

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• cites Kessler et al., 2010Not checked yet

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Most people exposed to childhood adversity have experienced multiple adverse events.

“However, most individuals exposed to childhood adversity have experienced multiple adverse experiences (Dong et al., 2004; Finkelhor, Ormrod, & Turner, 2007; Green et al., 2010; McLaughlin, Green, et al., 2012).”

• cites Dong et al., 2004Not checked yet

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• cites Finkelhor, Ormrod, & Turner, 2007Not checked yet

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• cites Green et al., 2010Not checked yet

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Institutional-rearing research offers the strongest setting for studying sensitive periods in human emotional and social development, since the timing of institutional care is easy to establish.

“To date, studies of institutional rearing have provided the best opportunity for studying sensitive periods in human emotional and social development, as it is straightforward to determine the precise period during which the child lived in the institutional setting.”

Parental psychopathology and divorce have often been counted as adversity in population studies.

“many population-based studies have included parental psychopathology and divorce as forms of adversity”

• cites Felitti et al., 1998Not checked yet

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• cites Green et al., 2010Not checked yet

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Institutional rearing has wide-ranging impacts on brain development, including neural structure and function.

“Institutional rearing also has wide-ranging impacts on patterns of brain development, including neural structure and function”

• cites Gee et al., 2013Not checked yet

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• cites McLaughlin, Fox, Zeanah, & Nelson, 2011Not checked yet

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• cites Tottenham et al., 2011Not checked yet

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In a randomized controlled trial of foster care for orphaned children in Romania, improvements in attachment security were a mechanism underlying the intervention's preventive effects on onset of anxiety and depression.

“in a randomized controlled trial of foster care as an intervention for orphaned children in Romania, improvements in attachment security were a mechanism underlying the preventive effects of the intervention on the onset of anxiety and depression in children”

• cites McLaughlin, Zeanah, Fox, & Nelson, 2012Not checked yet

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What is learned early limits later learning of patterns or associations that differ from the earlier ones.

“early experiences constrain future learning of patterns or associations that represent departures from those that were previously learned”

• cites Kuhl, 2004Not checked yet

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The ACE count approach implicitly assumes that very different experiences, from violence exposure to material deprivation to parental loss, affect psychopathology through similar mechanisms.

“However, this approach implicitly assumes that very different kinds of experiences ranging from violence exposure to material deprivation (e.g., food insecurity) to parental loss influence psychopathology through similar mechanisms.”

Most forms of childhood adversity are linked to higher risk for nearly all common mental disorders.

“It is has been repeatedly demonstrated that most forms of childhood adversity are associated with elevated risk for the onset of virtually all commonly occurring mental disorders (Green et al., 2010; McLaughlin, Green, et al., 2012).”

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• cites McLaughlin, Green, et al., 2012Not checked yet

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Although orphanages differ greatly, they usually do not provide each child with a sensitive, responsive attachment figure.

“Institutions for abandoned and orphaned children vary widely, but a common feature across them is the absence of an attachment figure who provides sensitive and responsive care for each child”

• cites Smyke et al., 2007Not checked yet

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• cites Tottenham, 2012Not checked yet

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• cites Zeanah et al., 2003Not checked yet

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Studying atypical or aberrant development can reveal aspects of typical development that other methods cannot.

“research on atypical or aberrant developmental processes can provide a window into typical development not available through other means.”

• cites Cicchetti & Toth, 2009Not checked yet

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Maladaptive outcomes including psychopathology are products of developmental processes.

“Maladaptive outcomes—including psychopathology—are considered to be the product of developmental processes”

• cites Sroufe, 1997, 2009Not checked yet

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A sensitive period around 2 years has also been identified for autonomic nervous system and HPA axis reactivity to the environment and for frontal EEG asymmetry.

“a sensitive period occurring around 2 years of age has also been identified for other domains, including reactivity of the autonomic nervous system and hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis to the environment and a neural marker of affective style (i.e., frontal electroencephalogram asymmetry”

• cites McLaughlin et al., 2011Not checked yet

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• cites McLaughlin, Sheridan, et al., 2015Not checked yet

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The ACE count approach has been useful for documenting childhood adversity as a risk factor for many negative mental health outcomes.

“it has proved useful in documenting the importance of childhood adversity as a risk factor for a wide range of negative mental health outcomes.”

The count approach oversimplifies boundaries between distinct environmental experiences that may have unique developmental consequences.

“the count approach oversimplifies the boundaries between distinct types of environmental experience that may have unique developmental consequences.”

Attachment disruptions may causally link institutional rearing to later childhood anxiety and depression, according to recent evidence.

“recent evidence suggests that disruptions in attachment may be a causal mechanism linking institutional rearing with the onset of anxiety and depression in children.”

In typically developing children, amygdala-mPFC functional connectivity shifts from positive in early/middle childhood to negative beginning prepubertal and continuing through adolescence.

“they observed a developmental shift from a pattern of positive amygdala–mPFC functional connectivity during early and middle childhood to a pattern of negative connectivity (i.e., higher mPFC activity, lower amygdala activity) beginning in the prepubertal period and continuing throughout adolescence”

• cites Gee, Humphreys, et al., 2013Not checked yet

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Young children with a history of institutionalization show a more mature pattern of negative amygdala-mPFC functional connectivity.

“documenting a more mature pattern of negative functional connectivity among young children with a history of institutionalization”

• cites Gee, Gabard-Durnam, et al., 2013Not checked yet

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A risk factor is most likely to disrupt the developmental tasks that are underway when exposure occurs.

“The primary developmental tasks occurring at the time of exposure to a risk factor are thought to be the most likely to be interrupted or disrupted by the experience.”

Studies of a single adversity cannot determine whether observed associations reflect that focal adversity or other co-occurring experiences with possibly different developmental effects.

“This presents challenges for studies focusing on a single type of adversity, as it is unclear if any observed associations represent the downstream effects of the focal adversity in question (e.g., poverty) or the consequences of other co-occurring experiences (e.g., exposure to violence) that might have different developmental consequences.”

A missing primary attachment figure early in life probably accounts for many later developmental effects of institutionalization.

“it is likely that the absence of a primary attachment figure in early development explains many of the downstream consequences of institutionalization on developmental outcomes.”

Emerging evidence from cognitive neuroscience suggests developmental periods when specific brain regions are most sensitive to effects of stress and adversity.

“Emerging evidence from cognitive neuroscience also suggests the presence of developmental periods when specific regions of the brain are most sensitive to the effects of stress and adversity”

• cites Andersen et al., 2008Not checked yet

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Not all cases of parental psychopathology or divorce result in significant adversity for children.

“certainly, not all cases of parental psychopathology or all divorces result in significant adversity for children.”

Gee, Humphreys, et al. (2013) demonstrated age-related changes in amygdala-mPFC functional connectivity in typically developing children during passive viewing of fearful and neutral faces.

“Gee, Humphreys, et al. (2013) demonstrated age-related changes in amygdala–mPFC functional connectivity in a typically developing sample of children during a task involving passive viewing of fearful and neutral faces.”

• cites Gee, Humphreys, et al., 2013Not checked yet

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Institutional-rearing research strongly supports the early attachment relationship as central to many areas of development.

“studies of institutional rearing provide strong evidence for the centrality of the early attachment relationship in shaping numerous aspects of development.”

Threat and deprivation are two dimensions that cut across multiple forms of childhood adversity.

“my colleague Margaret Sheridan and I have proposed two such dimensions that cut across multiple forms of adversity: threat and deprivation (McLaughlin, Sheridan, & Lambert, 2014; Sheridan & McLaughlin, 2014).”

• cites McLaughlin, Sheridan, & Lambert, 2014Not checked yet

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• cites Sheridan & McLaughlin, 2014Not checked yet

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Institutionalized children usually do not form secure caregiver attachments, particularly when placement continues beyond age two.

“most children raised in institutions fail to develop a secure attachment relationship to a caregiver; this is particularly true if children remain in institutional care past the age of 2 years”

• cites Smyke, Zeanah, Fox, Nelson, & Guthrie, 2010Not checked yet

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• cites Zeanah, Smyke, Koga, Carlson, & The Bucharest Early Intervention Project Core Group, 2005Not checked yet

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Evidence for protective factors varies widely across studies.

“However, in contrast to the consistent pattern of associations between childhood adversity and psychopathology, evidence for protective factors varies widely across studies”

Authoritarian parenting appears protective for children raised in low-resource and/or high-violence environments.

“in contrast, authoritarian parenting appears to be protective for children being raised in environments characterized by low resources and/or high degrees of violence and other threats (Flouri, 2007; Gonzales, Cauce, Friedman, & Mason, 1996).”

• cites Flouri, 2007Not checked yet

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• cites Gonzales, Cauce, Friedman, & Mason, 1996Not checked yet

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Heightened reactivity to negative emotional cues may make emotion regulation more difficult for children exposed to threatening environments.

“This heightened reactivity to negative emotional cues may make it more difficult for children who have been exposed to threatening environments to regulate emotional responses.”

Female adolescents with abuse histories show poor resting-state functional connectivity between the ventromedial prefrontal cortex and amygdala.

“Recent findings of poor resting-state functional connectivity between the ventromedial prefrontal cortex and amygdala among female adolescents with abuse histories provide some evidence for this latter pathway (Herringa et al., 2013).”

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Negative emotional effects of stressful events are heightened among those with maltreatment histories.

“Evidence that the negative emotional effects of stressful events are heightened among those with maltreatment histories is consistent with this possibility (Glaser et al., 2006; McLaughlin, Conron, et al., 2010).”

• cites Glaser et al., 2006Not checked yet

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• cites McLaughlin, Conron, et al., 2010Not checked yet

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The transdiagnostic model proposes emotional processing and executive functioning as two core developmental mechanisms that partly explain multifinality.

“Two core developmental mechanisms are proposed that, in part, explain patterns of multifinality: emotional processing and executive functioning.”

Findings linking negative life events to rumination are not specific to threat.

“although the latter findings are not specific to threat per se.”

Threat and deprivation are conceptualized as distal risk factors for psychopathology in the model.

“core dimensions of environmental experience that underlie multiple forms of adversity are conceptualized as distal risk factors for psychopathology.”

Deprived environments likely have downstream effects on emotional development that are at least partly unique from those associated with threat.

“Although evidence for disruptions in emotional processing come primarily from studies examining children exposed to environments characterized by high degrees of threat, deprived environments are also likely to have downstream effects on emotional development that are at least partially unique from those associated with threat.”

Threat is a central dimension underlying physical abuse, sexual abuse, some emotional abuse involving threats or coercion, domestic violence exposure, and other violent victimization.

“Threat is a central dimension underlying multiple commonly studied forms of adversity, including physical abuse, sexual abuse, some forms of emotional abuse (i.e., that involve threats of physical violence and coercion), exposure to domestic violence, and other forms of violent victimization in home, school, or community settings.”

Children who experienced interpersonal violence show greater activation in the amygdala and other salience network nodes to negative emotional stimuli.

“children who have experienced interpersonal violence exhibit greater activation in the amygdala and other nodes of the salience network (e.g., anterior insula, putamen, thalamus) to a wide range of negative emotional stimuli (McCrory et al., 2013; McCrory et al., 2011; McLaughlin, Peverill, Gold, Alves, & Sheridan, 2015)”

• cites McCrory et al., 2013Not checked yet

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• cites McCrory et al., 2011Not checked yet

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• cites McLaughlin, Peverill, Gold, Alves, & Sheridan, 2015Not checked yet

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Exposure to threatening experiences heightens the salience of negative emotional information because it may help detect novel threats.

“suggests that exposure to threatening experiences heightens the salience of negative emotional information, due to the potential relevance for detecting novel threats.”

Threat and deprivation can be measured separately.

“these are two important dimensions that can be measured separately”

Threat and deprivation influence proximal risk factors mainly through learning mechanisms that shape information processing, emotional responses, and higher-order control.

“These experiences influence proximal risk factors primarily through learning mechanisms that ultimately shape patterns of information processing, emotional responses to the environment, and higher order control processes that influence both cognitive and emotional processing.”

Many diverse mechanisms linking childhood adversity to psychopathology fall within emotional processing and executive functioning.

“Many of the diverse mechanisms linking childhood adversity to psychopathology are subsumed within these two broad domains.”

This complexity has contributed to widely variable findings on protective factors and resilience.

“This complexity has contributed to the widely variable findings regarding protective factors and resilience.”

Many children show adaptation and resilience after adversity.

“Although psychopathology is common among children exposed to a wide range of adverse environments, many children exhibit adaptation and resilience following adversity (Masten, 2001; Masten, Best, & Garmezy, 1990).”

• cites Masten, 2001Not checked yet

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• cites Masten, Best, & Garmezy, 1990Not checked yet

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The degree to which specific genetic polymorphisms moderate the impact of childhood adversity on developmental outcomes varies highly across studies.

“The degree to which variation in specific genetic polymorphisms moderates the impact of childhood adversity on development outcomes is also highly variable across studies”

Deprivation is common to emotional and physical neglect, institutional rearing, and poverty.

“Deprivation in expected environmental inputs is common to multiple forms of adversity including emotional and physical neglect, institutional rearing, and poverty.”

The mechanisms linking threat and deprivation to psychopathology are likely at least partly distinct.

“the mechanisms linking these experiences to the onset of psychopathology are likely to be at least partially distinct (McLaughlin, Sheridan, & Lambert, 2014; Sheridan & McLaughlin, 2014).”

• cites McLaughlin, Sheridan, & Lambert, 2014Not checked yet

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• cites Sheridan & McLaughlin, 2014Not checked yet

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Threatening environments are consistently associated with elevations in self-reported emotional reactivity.

“consistent associations between exposure to threatening environments and elevations in self-reported emotional reactivity to the environment have been observed in our lab and elsewhere (Glaser, Van Os, Portegijs, & Myin-Germeys, 2006; Heleniak, Jenness, Van Der Stoep, McCauley, & McLaughlin, in press; McLaughlin, Kubzansky et al., 2010).”

• cites Glaser, Van Os, Portegijs, & Myin-Germeys, 2006Not checked yet

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• cites Heleniak, Jenness, Van Der Stoep, McCauley, & McLaughlin, in pressNot checked yet

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• cites McLaughlin, Kubzansky et al., 2010Not checked yet

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Developmental processes altered after adverse environmental experiences are proximal risk factors or intermediate phenotypes linking adversity to psychopathology.

“The developmental processes that are altered following exposure to adverse environmental experiences represent proximal risk factors, or intermediate phenotypes, linking them to the onset of psychopathology.”

The model includes emotional processing and executive functioning as two primary domains of proximal risk factors.

“The model includes two primary domains of proximal risk factors: emotional processing and executive functioning.”

How protective a factor is depends heavily on context, including the specific risk factors with which it interacts.

“This is not surprising given that the degree to which a particular factor is protective depends heavily upon context, including the specific risk factors with which it is interacting (Cicchetti & Lynch, 1993; Sameroff, Gutman, & Peck, 2003).”

• cites Cicchetti & Lynch, 1993 sourceNot checked yet

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• cites Sameroff, Gutman, & Peck, 2003Not checked yet

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Exposure to threatening environments is associated with overgeneral autobiographical memory biases in children and adults.

“some evidence suggests that exposure to threatening environments is associated with memory biases for overgeneral autobiographical memories in both children and adults (Crane et al., 2014; Williams et al., 2007).”

• cites Crane et al., 2014Not checked yet

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• cites Williams et al., 2007Not checked yet

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Children who were victims of violence are more likely to attribute hostility to others in socially ambiguous situations.

“children who have been the victims of violence are also more likely to generate attributions of hostility to others in socially ambiguous situations (Dodge, Bates, & Pettit, 1990; Dodge, Pettit, Bates, & Valente, 1995; Weiss, Dodge, Bates, & Petit, 1992)”

• cites Dodge, Bates, & Pettit, 1990Not checked yet

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• cites Dodge, Pettit, Bates, & Valente, 1995Not checked yet

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• cites Weiss, Dodge, Bates, & Petit, 1992Not checked yet

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Some studies of neglected children find few differences in neural responses to facial emotion in early childhood.

“although some studies of neglected children have found few differences in neural responses to facial emotion in early childhood (Moulson, Fox, Zeanah, & Nelson, 2009; Slopen, McLaughlin, Fox, Zeanah, & Nelson, 2012).”

• cites Moulson, Fox, Zeanah, & Nelson, 2009Not checked yet

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• cites Slopen, McLaughlin, Fox, Zeanah, & Nelson, 2012Not checked yet

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Studies of a specific exposure that do not measure or adjust for co-occurring exposures cannot distinguish common from specific mechanisms linking adversity dimensions to psychopathology.

“Studies focusing on specific types of exposure (e.g., abuse) without measuring or adjusting for co-occurring exposures (e.g., neglect) are unable to distinguish between common and specific mechanisms linking different dimensions of adverse experiences to psychopathology.”

Threat and deprivation meet Nolen-Hoeksema and Watkins's criteria for a distal risk factor.

“Experiences of threat and deprivation meet each of Nolen-Hoeksema and Watkins’s (2011) criteria for a distal risk factor.”

• cites Nolen-Hoeksema & Watkins, 2011Not checked yet

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Neglected children have difficulty discriminating facial displays of emotion.

“children who have been neglected experience difficulties discriminating facial displays of emotion (Pollak et al., 2001; Pollak et al., 2005)”

• cites Pollak et al., 2001Not checked yet

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• cites Pollak et al., 2005Not checked yet

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Exposure to threatening environments early in development is associated with habitual rumination.

“exposure to threatening environments early in development is associated with habitual engagement in rumination, a response style characterized by passive focus on feelings of distress along with their causes and consequences without attempts to actively resolve the causes of distress (Nolen-Hoeksema, Wisco, & Lyubomirsky, 2008).”

• cites Nolen-Hoeksema, Wisco, & Lyubomirsky, 2008Not checked yet

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The lateral prefrontal cortex is recruited during working memory, inhibition, and cognitive flexibility tasks.

“The lateral PFC is recruited during a wide variety of executive functioning tasks, including working memory (Wager & Smith, 2003), inhibition (Aron, Robbins, & Poldrack, 2004), and cognitive flexibility (Rougier, Noelle, Braver, Cohen, & O’Reilly, 2005)”

• cites Wager & Smith, 2003Not checked yet

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• cites Aron, Robbins, & Poldrack, 2004Not checked yet

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• cites Rougier, Noelle, Braver, Cohen, & O’Reilly, 2005Not checked yet

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• AssumptionRests on an assumption: The lateral prefrontal cortex is one of the brain regions most centrally involved in executive functioning.

Environmental inputs required for language development may also be critical for executive function development.

“These findings suggest that the environmental inputs that are required for language development (i.e., complex language directed at the child) may also be critical for the development of executive function skills.”

Habitual rumination is linked to heightened risk for anxiety, depression, eating disorders, and problematic substance use.

“Habitual engagement in rumination has also been linked to heightened risk for anxiety, depression, eating disorders, and problematic substance use (McLaughlin & Nolen-Hoeksema, 2011; Nolen-Hoeksema, 2000; Nolen-Hoeksema, Stice, Wade, & Bohon, 2007).”

• cites McLaughlin & Nolen-Hoeksema, 2011Not checked yet

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• cites Nolen-Hoeksema, 2000Not checked yet

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• cites Nolen-Hoeksema, Stice, Wade, & Bohon, 2007Not checked yet

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Disruptions in emotional processing, emotional responding, and emotion regulation are transdiagnostic factors associated with virtually all common psychopathology.

“An extensive and growing body of work suggests that disruptions in emotional processing, emotional responding, and emotion regulation represent transdiagnostic factors associated with virtually all commonly occurring forms of psychopathology (Aldao, Nolen-Hoeksema, & Schweizer, 2010).”

• cites Aldao, Nolen-Hoeksema, & Schweizer, 2010Not checked yet

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Disruptions in emotional processing are a key transdiagnostic factor that may explain multifinality after threatening early environments.

“Together, evidence from numerous studies examining emotional processing at multiple levels of analysis suggests that disruptions in emotional processing are a key transdiagnostic factor in psychopathology that may explain patterns of multifinality following exposure to threatening early environments.”

Lack of environmental predictability is more common in low socioeconomic status than middle-class families.

“This lack of environmental predictability is more common among low SES than middle-class families (Deater-Deckard, Chen, Wang, & Bell, 2012; Evans, Gonnella, Mareynyszyn, Gentile, & Salpekar, 2005; Evans & Wachs, 2009).”

• cites Deater-Deckard, Chen, Wang, & Bell, 2012Not checked yet

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• cites Evans, Gonnella, Mareynyszyn, Gentile, & Salpekar, 2005Not checked yet

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• cites Evans & Wachs, 2009Not checked yet

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Responses to appetitive and rewarding cues are disrupted in children exposed to adversity.

“a growing body of evidence also suggests that responses to appetitive and rewarding cues are disrupted in children exposed to adversity.”

Higher parental scaffolding is prospectively linked with better executive function skills in early childhood.

“higher levels of parental scaffolding—or provision of support to allow the child to solve problems autonomously—has been prospectively linked with the development of better executive function skills in early childhood (Bernier, Carlson, & Whipple, 2010; Hammond, Muller, Carpendale, Bibok, & Liebermann-Finestone, 2012; Landry, Miller-Loncar, Smith, & Swank, 2002).”

• cites Bernier, Carlson, & Whipple, 2010Not checked yet

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• cites Hammond, Muller, Carpendale, Bibok, & Liebermann-Finestone, 2012Not checked yet

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• cites Landry, Miller-Loncar, Smith, & Swank, 2002Not checked yet

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Children raised in bilingual environments appear to have improved executive function performance.

“children raised in bilingual environments appear to have improved performance on executive function tasks (Carlson & Meltzoff, 2008).”

• cites Carlson & Meltzoff, 2008Not checked yet

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Children from low socioeconomic status families have different patterns of lateral prefrontal cortex recruitment during executive functioning tasks compared to middle-class children.

“children from low SES families also have different patterns of lateral PFC recruitment during these tasks as compared to children from middle-class families (Kishiyama, Boyce, Jimenez, Perry, & Knight, 2009; Sheridan, Sarsour, Jutte, D’Esposito, & Boyce, 2012).”

• cites Kishiyama, Boyce, Jimenez, Perry, & Knight, 2009Not checked yet

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• cites Sheridan, Sarsour, Jutte, D’Esposito, & Boyce, 2012Not checked yet

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• AssumptionRests on an assumption: The lateral prefrontal cortex is one of the brain regions most centrally involved in executive functioning.

Adults exposed to childhood abuse show a similar blunted ventral striatal response pattern.

“a similar pattern has been observed in a sample of adults exposed to abuse during childhood (Dillon et al., 2009).”

• cites Dillon et al., 2009Not checked yet

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Children raised in deprived early environments show blunted ventral striatal response to reward anticipation.

“children raised in deprived early environments exhibit blunted ventral striatal response to the anticipation of reward (Mehta et al., 2010)”

• cites Mehta et al., 2010Not checked yet

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Neglected or institution-raised children tend to show blunted physiological stress responses in the autonomic nervous system and HPA axis.

“children who were neglected or raised in deprived institutions tend to exhibit blunted physiological responses to stress, including in the autonomic nervous system and HPA axis (Gunnar, Frenn, Wewerka, & Van Ryzin, 2009; McLaughlin, Sheridan, et al., 2015).”

• cites Gunnar, Frenn, Wewerka, & Van Ryzin, 2009Not checked yet

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• cites McLaughlin, Sheridan, et al., 2015Not checked yet

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Heightened emotional responses to negative environmental cues are associated with both internalizing and externalizing psychopathology.

“Heightened emotional responses to negative environmental cues are associated with both internalizing and externalizing psychopathology in laboratory-based paradigms examining self-reported emotional and physiological responses to emotional stimuli”

• cites Boyce et al., 2001Not checked yet

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• cites Carthy, Horesh, Apter, Edge, & Gross, 2010Not checked yet

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• cites Hankin, Badanes, Abela, & Watamura, 2010Not checked yet

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Atypical prefrontal cortex activation during executive function tasks in low socioeconomic status children is explained by complex language exposure in the home.

“a recent study found that atypical patterns of PFC activation during executive function tasks among children from low SES families is explained by degree of complex language exposure in the home (Sheridan et al., 2012).”

• cites Sheridan et al., 2012Not checked yet

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Lack of consistent rules, routines, structure, and parental scaffolding may be a mechanism explaining executive functioning deficits in low socioeconomic status children.

“Lack of consistent rules, routines, structure, and parental scaffolding behaviors may be another mechanism explaining deficits in executive functioning among children from low SES families.”

Poor cognitive flexibility in children from low socioeconomic status environments is observable as early as infancy.

“Poor cognitive flexibility among children raised in low SES environments has been observed as early as infancy (Clearfield & Niman, 2012).”

• cites Clearfield & Niman, 2012Not checked yet

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Neglected children are at greater risk for cognitive deficits than abused children.

“Relative to children who have been abused, children exposed to neglect are at greater risk for cognitive deficits (Hildyard & Wolfe, 2002)”

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Environmental deprivation is associated with lasting alterations in executive functioning skills.

“A growing body of evidence suggests that environmental deprivation is associated with lasting alterations in executive functioning skills.”

Cognitive deficits in neglected children resemble those seen in poverty and institutionalization.

“similar to those observed in poverty and institutionalization (Dubowitz et al., 2002; Spratt et al., 2012).”

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• cites Spratt et al., 2012Not checked yet

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Institutional rearing is associated with absence of various environmental inputs, including an attachment figure, varied daily routines, age-appropriate cognitive stimulation, and complex language exposure.

“Institutional rearing is associated with an absence of environmental inputs of numerous kinds, including the presence of an attachment figure, variation in daily routines and activities, access to age-appropriate enriching cognitive stimulation from books, toys, and interactions with adults, and complex language exposure (Smyke et al., 2007; Zeanah et al., 2003).”

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• cites Zeanah et al., 2003Not checked yet

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Hostility attributions and other trauma-related social information processing biases are associated with risk for conduct problems and aggression.

“attributions of hostility and other social information processing biases associated with trauma exposure are associated with risk for the onset of conduct problems and aggression (Dodge et al., 1990; Dodge et al., 1995; Weiss et al., 1992).”

• cites Dodge et al., 1990Not checked yet

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• cites Dodge et al., 1995Not checked yet

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• cites Weiss et al., 1992Not checked yet

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Poor executive functioning, including working memory, inhibitory control, planning, and cognitive flexibility problems, is consistently documented among children raised in deprived environments from institutions to low-SES families.

“Poor executive functioning—including problems with working memory, inhibitory control, planning ability, and cognitive flexibility—has consistently been documented among children raised in deprived environments ranging from institutional settings to low socioeconomic status (SES) families.”

Enriching cognitive activities and exposure to complex language might provide the scaffolding children require to develop executive functions.

“Together, these distinct lines of research suggest that enriching cognitive activities and exposure to complex language might provide the scaffolding that children require to develop executive functions.”

Certain characteristics make children particularly responsive to environmental influences, conferring vulnerability in adverse environments and benefits in supportive environments.

“A growing body of evidence suggests that certain characteristics make children particularly responsive to environmental influences; such factors confer not only vulnerability in the context of adverse environments but also benefits in the presence of supportive environments (Belsky, Bakermans-Kranenburg, & Van Ijzendoorn, 2007; Belsky & Pluess, 2009; Boyce & Ellis, 2005; Ellis, Essex, & Boyce, 200”

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• cites Belsky & Pluess, 2009Not checked yet

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• cites Boyce & Ellis, 2005Not checked yet

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• AssumptionRests on an assumption: Children vary markedly in their sensitivity to environmental context.

For children exposed to threat, executive function deficits may emerge primarily in emotional contexts.

“First, for children exposed to threat, it may be that deficits in executive functions emerge primarily in emotional contexts, such that the heightened perceptual sensitivity and reactivity to emotional stimuli in children exposed to threat draws attention to emotional stimuli (Shackman et al., 2007), making it more difficult to hold other stimuli in mind, effectively inhibit responses to emotional”

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The impact of threatening and deprived early environments on emotional processing may be mediated through emotional learning pathways.

“the impact of threatening and deprived early environments on the development of patterns of emotional processing and emotional responding may be mediated, at least in part, through emotional learning pathways.”

Learning mechanisms are the most obvious pathways linking threat and deprivation to changes in emotional processing and executive functioning.

“Learning mechanisms are the most obvious pathways linking these experiences with changes in emotional processing and executive functioning, although other mechanisms (e.g., the development of stable beliefs and schemas) are also likely to play an important role.”

Problems with executive functions are observed in children with externalizing psychopathology, including conduct disorder and oppositional defiant disorder, even after accounting for comorbid attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder.

“Problems with executive functions have also been observed in children with externalizing psychopathology, including conduct disorder and oppositional defiant disorder, even after accounting for comorbid ADHD (Hobson, Scott, & Rubia, 2011).”

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These plasticity markers represent potential moderators of the link between childhood adversity and disruptions in emotional processing and executive functioning.

“These plasticity markers represent potential moderators of the link between childhood adversity and disruptions in emotional processing and executive functioning.”

Deficits in executive functioning have sometimes been observed in children exposed to trauma and high levels of stressful life events.

“Deficits in executive functioning skills have sometimes been observed in children with exposure to trauma (DePrince, Weinzierl, & Combs, 2009; Mezzacappa, Kindlon, & Earls, 2001) as well as children with high levels of exposure to stressful life events (Hanson et al., 2012)”

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• cites Mezzacappa, Kindlon, & Earls, 2001Not checked yet

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• cites Hanson et al., 2012Not checked yet

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Highly reactive temperament, vagal tone, and genetic polymorphisms regulating the dopaminergic and serotonergic systems are markers of plasticity and susceptibility to both negative and positive environmental influences.

“Highly reactive temperament, vagal tone, and genetic polymorphisms that regulate the dopaminergic and serotonergic system have been identified as markers of plasticity and susceptibility to both negative and positive environmental influences (Belsky & Pluess, 2009).”

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Executive functioning measured in early childhood predicts adult outcomes in health, socioeconomic status, and criminal behavior, over and above the effects of IQ.

“executive functioning measured in early childhood predicts a wide range of outcomes in adulthood in the domains of health, SES, and criminal behavior, over and above the effects of IQ (Moffitt et al., 2011).”

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These findings suggest an early sensitive period during which the environment disproportionately affects the development of neurobiological systems regulating stress responses.

“These findings suggest the possibility of an early sensitive period during which the environment exerts a disproportionate effect on the development of neurobiological systems that regulate responses to stress.”

Nolen-Hoeksema and Watkins's transdiagnostic model of psychopathology includes moderators that determine the specific type of psychopathology someone with a particular proximal risk factor will develop.

“A key component of Nolen-Hoeksema and Watkins’s (2011) transdiagnostic model of psychopathology involves moderators that determine the specific type of psychopathology that someone with a particular proximal risk factor will develop.”

• cites Nolen-Hoeksema & Watkins, 2011Not checked yet

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Executive functioning deficits in the context of emotional processing are more strongly linked to internalizing problems, including depression.

“when these deficits emerge in the context of emotional processing (e.g., poor inhibition of negative emotional information) they are more strongly linked to internalizing problems, including depression (Goeleven, De Raedt, Baert, & Koster, 2006; Joorman & Gotlib, 2010).”

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Executive functioning deficits are a central feature of attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder.

“Executive functioning deficits are a central feature of ADHD (Martinussen, Hayden, Hogg-Johnson, & Tannock, 2005; Sergeant, Geurts, & Oosterlaan, 2002; Willcutt, Doyle, Nigg, Faraone, & Pennington, 2005).”

• cites Martinussen, Hayden, Hogg-Johnson, & Tannock, 2005Not checked yet

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• cites Sergeant, Geurts, & Oosterlaan, 2002Not checked yet

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• cites Willcutt, Doyle, Nigg, Faraone, & Pennington, 2005Not checked yet

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Developmental timing of exposure to adversity plays a meaningful role in moderating its impact on emotional processing and executive functioning.

“Developmental timing of exposure to adversity also plays a meaningful role in moderating the impact of childhood adversity on emotional processing and executive functioning.”

Fear learning mechanisms explain, in part, the association of threatening environments with alterations in emotional processing.

“fear learning mechanisms and their downstream consequences explain, in part, the association of threatening environments with alterations in emotional processing (McLaughlin et al., 2014; Sheridan & McLaughlin, 2014).”

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• cites Sheridan & McLaughlin, 2014Not checked yet

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Effects of deprived early environments on emotional processing are likely partially explained through reward learning pathways.

“the effects of deprived early environments on emotional processing are likely to be partially explained through reward learning pathways.”

Learning mechanisms may be a central mechanism in the association between deprived early environments and executive functioning.

“Learning mechanisms may also be a central mechanism in the association between deprived early environments and the development of executive functioning.”

Environmental unpredictability is an additional mechanism linking low socioeconomic status environments to poor executive functioning in children.

“These findings suggest that environmental unpredictability is an additional mechanism linking low SES environments to poor executive functioning in children.”

Exposure to threatening or deprived environments early in development results in presence or absence of opportunities for emotional learning, with lasting downstream effects on emotional processing.

“Exposure to threatening or deprived environments early in development results in the presence (i.e., in the case of threats) or absence (i.e., in the case of deprivation) of opportunities for emotional learning; these learning experiences, in turn, have lasting downstream effects on emotional processing.”

Environmental unpredictability is an unlikely explanation for executive functioning deficits among institutionally reared children.

“However, given the highly structured and routinized nature of most institutional settings, environmental unpredictability is an unlikely explanation for executive functioning deficits among institutionally reared children.”