Risk and developmental heterogeneity in previously institutionalized children
Open accessAbstract
This manuscript presents an overview of the developmental outcomes of children adopted from institutional care. I describe how institutional care is a risk factor for typical human development and describe the areas of development, both behavioral and neurobiological, that are most vulnerable to this risk. Also described is variation in outcome and resilience, where some children thrive despite exposure to adverse rearing conditions. I conclude with an emphasis on heterogeneity in outcome, describing how the risk associated with institutional care is not a deterministic factor, but rather an influential one.
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- Interpretationreasoning
Despite institutional good intentions, orphanage care cannot replicate family care.
“Thus, despite the best intentions of the institution, the care children receive in an orphanage cannot possibly mimic the care provided in a family environment.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Interpretationreasoning
Institutional care is a major risk factor for atypical psychological development.
“I describe how institutional care is a risk factor for typical human development”
- Also stated in: § Abstract · plain
“Thus, institutional care presents a major risk factor for atypical psychological development.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 2 sources checked- cites Bowlby, 1963 source
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- cites Tottenham, in press
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- Also stated in: § Abstract · plain
- Study design and conductown data
The BEIP used random assignment to place some institutionalized children into stable foster family care.
“The BEIP uses random assignment to remove some children from institutional care and place them into stable foster family caregiving arrangements.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Premisecitation
The pattern of adequate physical care but deficient social and emotional input is similar across many institutions.
“These observations, that although health care, nutrition, and safety needs are often met, necessary maternal input is lacking, are highly similar to observations of other institutions”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 3 sources checked - Premisecitation
Previously institutionalized children are commonly small in stature, weight, and head circumference.
“As described by Johnson & Dole (1999) it is very common for PI children to be small in size, in terms of stature, weight, and head circumference.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites Johnson & Dole (1999)
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- Premisecitation
Language delays are commonly observed in previously institutionalized children.
“Language delays are commonly observed (Loman, Wiik, Frenn, Pollak, & Gunnar, 2009).”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites Loman, Wiik, Frenn, Pollak, & Gunnar, 2009 source
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- Premisecitation
After adoption, previously institutionalized children show language production sequences similar to those of infants without institutional care.
“Although once adopted, PI children show similar developmental sequences in language production as infants without a history of institutional care (Snedeker, Geren, & Shafto, 2007)”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites Snedeker, Geren, & Shafto, 2007
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- Premisenone given
Relative to children without a history of institutional care, previously institutionalized children are at high risk for developmental delays when first adopted.
“Nonetheless, relative to children without a history of institutional care, PI children are at high risk for exhibiting a number of developmental delays when first adopted.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Premisecitation
Once in a family, previously institutionalized children show steep improvements across domains, including weight, head circumference, and cognitive testing during childhood and adolescence.
“Once in a family, children have demonstrated steep improvements across domains (Johnson, et al., 2010; Van Ijzendoorn, Bakermans-Kranenburg, & Juffer, 2007), including weight and head circumference (Rutter & O’Connor, 2004), as well as showing evidence during childhood and adolescence of improvement on cognitive testing (Beckett, et al., 2006; Fox, Almas, Degnan, Nelson, & Zeanah, 2011; van den D”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 3 sources checked - Interpretationreasoning
The BEIP reduces scientific doubt that institutionalization itself causes poor outcome rather than genetic or prenatal factors.
“Secondly, it reduces scientific doubt that institutionalization itself causes poor outcome rather than genetic or prenatal factors.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Premisecitation
Cognitive development is vulnerable to early institutional care, especially for children adopted after 6 months of age.
“Cognitive development is also vulnerable to early institutional care, particularly for those children adopted after they were 6 months old (Rutter, 1998).”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites Rutter, 1998 source
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- Premisecitation
Language delays often continue to be observed in previously institutionalized children at older ages.
“language delays often continue to be observed at older ages (Roberts, Pollock, & Krakow, 2005; van Ijzendoorn, et al., 2005).”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 2 sources checked- cites Roberts, Pollock, & Krakow, 2005
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- cites van Ijzendoorn, et al., 2005 source
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- Premisecitation
Relative to children who remain in orphanage care, previously institutionalized children show dramatic improvements across developmental domains.
“Nonetheless, relative to children who remain in orphanage care, PI children show dramatic improvements across developmental domains (Bos, et al., 2011; van Ijzendoorn, Juffer, & Poelhuis, 2005) as will be discussed in more detail below.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 2 sources checked - Premisecitation
Catch-up after adoption may not always be complete.
“Although remarkable, the catch-up may not always be complete (van Ijzendoorn & Juffer, 2006).”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites van Ijzendoorn & Juffer, 2006
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- Premisecitation
Despite overall cognitive competence, previously institutionalized children may show impairment in specific domains such as executive functioning, language, or memory.
“Similarly, despite demonstrating overall cognitive competence, children may exhibit some degree of impairment in specific domains (e.g., executive functioning, language, or memory) (Behen, Helder, Rothermel, Solomon, & Chugani, 2008).”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites Behen, Helder, Rothermel, Solomon, & Chugani, 2008
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- Premisecitation
The odds of reaching full physical growth potential even after adoption into a stable home are likely low because of multiple risk factors such as early puberty, prenatal factors, and growth retardation.
“For example, as described by Zeanah and colleagues (Zeanah, Gunnar, McCall, Kreppner, & Fox, 2011), the odds of attaining full physical growth potential even once adopted into a stable home are likely to be low as a result of multiple risk factors (e.g., early puberty, prenatal factors, and growth retardation).”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites Zeanah, Gunnar, McCall, Kreppner, & Fox, 2011 source
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- Interpretationreasoning
Adults with a childhood history of institutional care may be smaller despite early increases in growth rate.
“Thus, despite early increases in growth rate, adults with a childhood history of institutional care may be smaller individuals.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Premisecitation
Emotional faces tend to increase impulse-control errors in a behavior regulation task for previously institutionalized children.
“For example, emotional faces tend to increase impulse-control errors in a behavior regulation task for PI children (Tottenham, et al., 2010).”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites Tottenham, et al., 2010
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- Premisecitation
Previously institutionalized children tend to show neural hypoactivation to faces as measured by EEG.
“and tend to show neural hypoactivation to faces as measured by EEG (Moulson, Fox, et al., 2009).”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites Moulson, Fox, et al., 2009
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- Premisecitation
Relative to age-matched peers without institutional care, previously institutionalized children are less likely to correctly identify emotional facial expressions.
“Relative to age-matched peers without a history of institutional care, PI children are less likely to correctly identify the emotional expressions of faces (Fries & Pollak, 2004)”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites Fries & Pollak, 2004
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- Interpretationreasoning
The social deprivation of institutional care may not provide enough early experience to fully develop face processing.
“Face processing is skill requiring extensive experience, and the social deprivation of institutional care may not provide adequate amounts of early experience to fully hone this skill.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Premisecitation
Risk for internalizing and externalizing disorders increases for individuals with a history of multiple adversities.
“The risk for internalizing and externalizing disorders increases for those individuals with a history of multiple adversities (van der Vegt, van der Ende, Ferdinand, Verhulst, & Tiemeier, 2009)”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites van der Vegt, van der Ende, Ferdinand, Verhulst, & Tiemeier, 2009 source
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- Premisecitation
A large epidemiological study found internalizing and externalizing behaviors significantly elevated in children adopted after 24 months but not in those adopted earlier.
“A large epidemiological study has found that internalizing and externalizing behaviors were significantly elevated in children who had been adopted after 24 months (but not in those children adopted earlier) (Gunnar, van Dulmen, et al., 2007).”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites Gunnar, van Dulmen, et al., 2007 source
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- Interpretationreasoning
Children adopted internationally are typically adopted by committed parents who can provide enriched developmental environments.
“Therefore, we take these facts of international adoption to suggest that children adopted internationally are typically adopted by committed parents who can provide enriched developmental environments for their children.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Interpretationreasoning
Changes in brain development, particularly in the amygdala, mediate many emotional behavior difficulties observed in previously institutionalized children.
“Taken together, these data suggest that changes in brain development, in particular the amygdala, mediate many of the difficulties in emotional behavior observed in PI children.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Premisecitation
Studies of previously institutionalized children show enlarged amygdala volumes even years after removal from institutional care.
“Studies of the amygdala in PI children have shown enlarged volumes even though measurements were taken years after removal from institutional care (Mehta, et al., 2009; Tottenham, et al., 2010).”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 2 sources checked- cites Mehta, et al., 2009 source
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- cites Tottenham, et al., 2010
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- Premisecitation
Amygdala hyperactivity has been shown to mediate the relationship between early institutional rearing and subsequent social behavior, specifically decreased face-to-face eye contact.
“Indeed, amygdala hyperactivity has been shown to be a mediator between early institutional rearing and subsequent social behavior (i.e., decreased face-to-face eye contact) (Tottenham, et al., 2011).”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites Tottenham, et al., 2011 source
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- Premisecitation
Previously institutionalized children show an exaggerated amygdala response to emotional faces.
“Additionally, PI children show an exaggerated amygdala response to emotional faces (Tottenham, et al., 2011)”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites Tottenham, et al., 2011 source
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- Premisecitation
In adult animals, stress or stress hormones increase the growth and activity of amygdala neurons.
“In adult animals, stress or administration of stress hormones increases the growth and activity of amygdala neurons (Armony, Corbo, Clement, & Brunet, 2005; Liberzon, et al., 1999; Rauch, et al., 2000).”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 3 sources checked - Premisecitation
In developing animals, adversity can affect amygdala activity, perhaps more than adversity later in life.
“In the developing animal, adversity can also impact amygdala activity, perhaps even more so than adversity that occurs later in life (Tottenham & Sheridan, 2010).”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites Tottenham & Sheridan, 2010
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- Premisecitation
Early removal from orphanage care is linked to greater improvements in cognitive, language, and emotional development, including attachment behaviors and anxiety.
“experimental randomization has shown that timing matters – improvements in cognitive, language, and emotional development, including attachment behaviors and anxiety, were most significant for those children removed from orphanage care early (Nelson, Furtado, Fox, & Zeanah, 2009; Nelson, et al., 2007; Smyke, Zeanah, Fox, Nelson, & Guthrie, 2010; Zeanah, et al., 2009).”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 3 sources checked - Premiseown data
A history of institutional care significantly raises the risk of emotional difficulties.
“While the data strongly indicate that a history of institutional care significantly increases the risk for emotional difficulties, there are many exceptions to this rule.”
- Also stated in: § Abstract · boosted
“However, it does dramatically increase the risk.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Also stated in: § Abstract · boosted
- Premisecitation
The long-lasting effect may partly relate to amygdalar cells resisting recovery after a stressor is removed, unlike other brain regions.
“This long-lasting effect may in part be related to the resistance of amygdalar cells to show recovery once a stressor is removed, unlike other regions of the brain (Vyas, Pillai, & Chattarji, 2004).”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites Vyas, Pillai, & Chattarji, 2004 source
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- Interpretationcitation
The exaggerated amygdala response may partly explain emotional behavior difficulties in processing facial expressions.
“which may in part explain some of the previously described emotional behavior difficulties in processing facial expressions (Tottenham, et al., 2010).”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites Tottenham, et al., 2010
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- Premisecitation
Neural connections between the amygdala and cortex, such as the uncinate fasciculus, tend to show decreased structural integrity in previously institutionalized children.
“Neural connections (i.e., uncinate fasciculus) between the amygdala and cortex tend to show decreased structural integrity (Eluvathingal, et al., 2006).”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites Eluvathingal, et al., 2006 source
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- Premisecitation
Age of adoption is a consistently strong factor influencing outcomes.
“Age of adoption has consistently been a strong influential factor.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Interpretationreasoning
Brief periods in institutional care tend to correlate with better outcomes.
“These data are consistent with the notion that shorter stays in institutional care are generally associated with more optimal outcomes.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Premisecitation
Children adopted before six months of age show no reliable differences from age-matched peers without institutionalization history across several domains.
“Across several domains, Rutter and colleagues have found that children adopted before 6 months old do not show reliable differences from age-matched peers who do not have a history of institutionalization (O’Connor, et al., 2003; Rutter, 1998; Rutter, et al., 1999)”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 3 sources checked - Interpretationreasoning
Children adopted early face a shorter duration of risk than those adopted at older ages.
“Age of adoption is an important variable because it indexes differential exposures to risk; in other words, children adopted early are exposed to a shorter duration of risk than children adopted at older ages.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Premisecitation
Under less severe institutional care conditions, the cut-off for reliable differences is around 12 or sometimes 24 months of age.
“Under less severe institutional care conditions, others have found this cut-off to be near 12 or sometimes 24 months of age (Juffer & van Ijzendoorn, 2005) (van Ijzendoorn, et al., 2005) (Nelson, et al., 2007).”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 3 sources checked - Premisecitation
Older age at adoption is associated with larger amygdala volumes.
“Similarly, age of adoption has been shown to influence brain development in two separate samples, where older age at time of adoption was associated with larger amygdala volumes (Mehta, et al., 2009; Tottenham, et al., 2010).”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 2 sources checked- cites Mehta, et al., 2009 source
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- cites Tottenham, et al., 2010
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- Premisecitation
Physical growth moderates the association between early institutional care and mental health outcome.
“Likewise, physical growth of the child, which can serve as an index of stress-induced allostatic load, have also been found to moderate the association between early institutional care and mental health outcome.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites Johnson, Bruce, Tarullo, & Gunnar, 2011
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- Premisecitation
Parenting stress and socio-economic factors moderate the effects of early institutionalization.
“For example, post-adoption factors, such as parenting stress and socio-economic factors, have been shown to moderate the effects of early institutionalization (Chisholm, 1998; MacLean, 2003).”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 2 sources checked - Premisecitation
The effects of institutionalization become more severe as the age at adoption increases.
“and effects of institutionalization were more severe the older children were at the age of adoption thereafter.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 3 sources checked - Interpretationnone given
Within a child, some characteristics may show resilience while others are more vulnerable to risk factors associated with institutional care.
“Even within a child, some characteristics may show resilience, while others are more vulnerable to risk factors associated with institutional care.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim- Rests on an assumption: Resilience factors exist that can explain why some children thrive despite institutional care.
- Interpretationreasoning
Heterogeneity in outcome is common.
“Heterogeneity in outcome is common.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim- Rests on an assumption: Development is probabilistic, not deterministic.
- Premisecitation
Indiscriminate friendliness and elevated evening cortisol levels are most problematic for children with linear growth delays (growth stunting).
“A recent study has found that post-adoption outcomes such as indiscriminate friendliness and elevated evening cortisol levels are most problematic for children who show linear growth delays (i.e., growth stunting) (Johnson, Bruce, Tarullo, & Gunnar, 2011).”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites Johnson, Bruce, Tarullo, & Gunnar, 2011
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- Premisecitation
COMT, DAT1, and 5HTT alleles interact with institutional care experience to predict mental health outcomes like emotional difficulties, ADHD, and depression.
“Other genetic alleles including those that code for COMT, DAT1, and 5HTT have shown to interact with experience in institutional care to predict mental health outcomes, such as emotional difficulties, ADHD, and depression (Stevens, et al., 2009)(Kumsta, et al., 2010)(Drury, Theall, et al., 2010).”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 3 sources checked - Interpretationreasoning
These variables explain in part some of the heterogeneity in outcome.
“These variables seem to be increasingly important to include in examination of mental health following institutional care as they explain, in part, some of the heterogeneity in outcome.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Premisecitation
Genetics plays a moderating role in outcomes within PI samples.
“Examination of genetic influences within PI samples, have similarly suggested a moderating role of genetics.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Premisecitation
Ameliorative effects of foster care intervention were seen only in children carrying certain genetic polymorphisms (5httlpr, BDNF) linked to greater neural plasticity.
“For example, ameliorative effects of foster care intervention were observed only in those children who carried genetic functional polymorphisms (5httlpr, BDNF) that conferred greater neural plasticity (Drury, Gleason, et al., 2011).”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites Drury, Gleason, et al., 2011
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- Premisecitation
Genetics may influence outcome.
“Factors intrinsic to the child, such as genetics, may also influence outcome.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
- May combine two claims. 31
- The quote only partly states this claim. 1
- Classified as probably not a substantial claim. 6
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PremisecitationInstitutions tend to meet medical, nutritional, sanitation, safety, toy, and equipment needs and lack physical or sexual abuse, but caregiver-child social and emotional interactions are extremely limited and deficient.
“caregiving institutions tend to be characterized as “acceptable with respect to medical care, nutrition, sanitation, safety, toys, and equipment and lack of physical or sexual abuse”. In contrast to physical health and safety, the team found that the “social and emotional interactions between caregivers and children [were] extremely limited and noticeably deficient”.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites The St. Petersburg-USA Orphanage Research Team, 2008
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PremisecitationImproving orphanage caregiving or removing children from orphanage care substantially improves developmental outcome.
“Nonetheless, it is clear that improvements in orphanage caregiving or complete removal from orphanage care drastically improves outcome.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites The St. Petersburg-USA Orphanage Research Team, 2008
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PremisecitationEven under the best conditions, institutional care is suboptimal because caregivers are rotating staff rather than parents and the caregiver-to-child ratio is very low.
“institutional care, even in the best of circumstances, is suboptimal in that the caregivers are staff members, rather than parents, who rotate shifts and, due to the devastatingly low caregiver-to-child ratio, are under great pressures to cater to the physical needs of a large number of children”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 3 sources checkedMay combine two claims.
PremisecitationChildren randomly assigned to the BEIP foster care intervention showed rapid improvements relative to children remaining in orphanage care in cognitive development, attachment behaviors, emotional reactivity, psychiatric symptoms, and EEG-measured neural activity.
“Studies have shown that relative to children who remain in orphanage care, those randomly assigned to the foster care intervention show rapid improvements in a number of outcome measures, including cognitive development (Nelson, et al., 2007), attachment behaviors, emotional reactivity, psychiatric symptomatology (Bos, et al., 2011), and neural activity as measured by electroencephalogram (EEG)(Mc”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 3 sources checkedMay combine two claims.
PremisecitationThe St. Petersburg intervention produced significant gains in social and personal domains, language and communication, fine and gross motor skills, physical growth, and caregiver-child interactions.
“Children who received this intervention showed significant developmental gains not only in social and personal domains, but also in language and communication, motor skills (both fine and gross), physical growth, and caregiver-child interactions.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites The St. Petersburg-USA Orphanage Research Team, 2008
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InterpretationreasoningThe BEIP demonstrates that the developing brain is plastic and that improved rearing conditions can change developmental outcome.
“First, it demonstrates the plasticity of the developing brain, showing that improved rearing conditions can change outcome.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claimMay combine two claims.
PremisecitationSome outcomes, including language, externalizing disorders, and emotional behaviors, may not show complete catch-up and appear less amenable to intervention.
“However, there are outcome measures that may not show complete catch-up (e.g., language, externalizing disorders, emotional behaviors) (Bos, et al., 2011; Windsor, et al., 2011) and seem less amenable to intervention.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 2 sources checkedMay combine two claims.
PremisecitationPreviously institutionalized children may have weak muscle tone and delayed motor milestones because of deprived physical activity.
“Muscle tone may be weak from under utilized muscles while in institutional care. Developmental motor milestones may be delayed as a consequence of deprived physical activity.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites Johnson & Dole (1999)
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InterpretationreasoningThe incomplete catch-up findings suggest lingering effects of early institutional care among foster-care intervention children, while leaving open possible genetic or prenatal contributions.
“These findings may suggest that there are lingering effects of early institutional care in children receiving the foster care intervention, but still leave open the possibility of contributing effects of genetic or prenatal factors.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claimMay combine two claims.
InterpretationcitationAdoption into a family has striking ameliorative effects, and catch-up domains demonstrate the healing effect of a stable home environment on development.
“Nonetheless, the ameliorative effects of adoption into a family are striking (van Ijzendoorn & Juffer, 2006), and these domains of catch-up (even if not entirely complete) demonstrate the powerful healing effect of a stable home environment on human development.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites van Ijzendoorn & Juffer, 2006
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PremisecitationIndiscriminate friendliness tends to be shallow and involves highly intimate behaviors toward unfamiliar adults and willingness to leave with a stranger.
“Although it tends to be shallow, indiscriminate friendliness manifests as highly intimate behaviors directed at unfamiliar adults and a willingness to go off with a stranger (Chisholm, 1998).”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites Chisholm, 1998 source
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PremisecitationAs a group, previously institutionalized children can form attachments to adoptive parents, but their attachment relationships are much more likely to be classified as insecure.
“As a group, PI children are able to form attachments to their adoptive parents, although the attachment relationship is much more likely to be classified as insecure (Chisholm, 1998; Hodges & Tizard, 1989; O’Connor, et al., 2003; van Londen, Juffer, & van Ijzendoorn, 2007; Zeanah, Smyke, Koga, & Carlson, 2005).”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 3 sources checked- cites Chisholm, 1998 source
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- cites Hodges & Tizard, 1989
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- cites O’Connor, et al., 2003
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PremisecitationIndiscriminate friendliness is very common, with about two-thirds of preschool-aged institutionalized children possibly showing it, and it may persist for years after adoption.
“A related but independent behavior termed “indiscriminate friendliness”, is very common (approximately 2/3 of preschool aged institutionalized children may show this behavior)(Zeanah, Smyke, & Dumitrescu, 2002) and may persist for years after adoption (Hodges & Tizard, 1989).”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 2 sources checked- cites Zeanah, Smyke, & Dumitrescu, 2002 source
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- cites Hodges & Tizard, 1989
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PremisecitationPreviously institutionalized children are at high risk for difficulties in intimate social attachments, emotion regulation, and interpretation of facial expressions.
“Described broadly, PI children are at high risk for difficulties in intimate social attachments, emotion regulation, and interpretation of facial expressions (Hodges & Tizard, 1989; Moulson, Fox, Zeanah, & Nelson, 2009; O’Connor, Marvin, Rutter, Olrick, & Britner, 2003; Tottenham, et al., 2010).”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 3 sources checked- cites Hodges & Tizard, 1989
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- cites Moulson, Fox, Zeanah, & Nelson, 2009
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- cites O’Connor, Marvin, Rutter, Olrick, & Britner, 2003
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PremisecitationFamilies in the United States that adopt internationally tend to have higher than average socioeconomic status, with average yearly household income significantly higher than the national average.
“In general, families in the United States that adopt internationally come from a higher than average socio-economic background, where average yearly household income is significantly higher than the rest of the nation (Hellerstedt, et al., 2008).”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites Hellerstedt, et al., 2008 source
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The quote only partly states this claim.
InterpretationreasoningEmotional difficulties appear more resistant to change than physical and cognitive gains.
“In contrast to some of these stated gains, emotional difficulties seem more resistant to change.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claimMay combine two claims.
PremisecitationAdversity does not affect the whole brain uniformly; its effects are region specific, with some of the largest effects in the amygdala.
“Adversity does not impact the whole brain in a uniform fashion, but instead the effects are region specific, exhibiting some of the largest effects in the amygdala.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 3 sources checkedMay combine two claims.
PremisecitationBy some estimates, 20 percent of previously institutionalized children reach clinical threshold for anxiety and 19 percent for ADHD.
“By some estimates, 20 percent of PI children reach clinical threshold for anxiety and 19 percent for ADHD (Zeanah et al., 2009).”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites Zeanah et al., 2009 source
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Premisenone givenSignificant developmental gains have been observed in children assigned to Romanian foster families, who presumably have lower yearly income than average North American adoptive families.
“For example, significant developmental gains have been observed in children assigned to live with Romanian foster families, who presumably maintain a lower yearly income than the average North American family who adopts internationally.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimMay combine two claims.
PremisecitationThese difficulties are not experienced by all previously institutionalized children, are highly susceptible to institutional rearing, can persist for years, and may worsen as children transition into adolescence.
“These difficulties, while certainly not experienced by all PI children, are highly susceptible to the effects of institutional rearing (Rutter & O’Connor, 2004), can persist for years, and may even exacerbate as children transition into adolescence (Colvert, et al., 2008).”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 2 sources checked- cites Rutter & O’Connor, 2004
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- cites Colvert, et al., 2008 source
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InterpretationreasoningEmotion regulatory abilities are highly vulnerable and may affect several domains of functioning.
“Taken together, these findings suggest that emotion regulatory abilities are highly vulnerable and may pervade several domains of functioning.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claimMay combine two claims.
InterpretationreasoningThe evidence suggests that parental desire to provide a stable home environment, rather than high family income, benefits the child.
“To be clear, the evidence seems to suggest that it is the desire of the parents to provide a stable home environment that is beneficial for the child, not a high family income.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claimMay combine two claims.
PremisecitationThe literature is mixed about how robust childhood internalizing-problem findings are, with some studies failing to find evidence of internalizing problems.
“It should be noted that the literature is mixed with regard to how robust the findings with regard to internalizing problems during childhood are (some studies fail to find evidence of internalizing problems (see Gunnar, van Dulmen, and the International Adoption Project Team, 2007 for review).”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites Gunnar, van Dulmen, and the International Adoption Project Team, 2007 source
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PremisecitationSome samples of children with institutional care histories show increased internalizing and externalizing behaviors, although previously institutionalized children show fewer such problems than domestically adopted children.
“These regulation difficulties have additionally been evidenced by increased internalizing (Casey, et al., 2009) and externalizing behaviors in some samples of children with a history of institutional care (see meta-analysis in Juffer & van Ijzendoorn, 2005) (although PI children show fewer internalizing and externalizing behavior problems than children adopted domestically).”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 2 sources checked- cites Casey, et al., 2009 source
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- cites Juffer & van Ijzendoorn, 2005
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PremisecitationInternalizing and externalizing problems may emerge or worsen as children enter adolescence and adulthood.
“and there is evidence that such problems may either emerge or exacerbate as children enter adolescence (Verhulst, Althaus, & Versluis-den Bieman, 1990) and adulthood (Tieman, van der Ende, & Verhulst, 2005).”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 2 sources checked- cites Verhulst, Althaus, & Versluis-den Bieman, 1990 source
Not checked in the free run.
- cites Tieman, van der Ende, & Verhulst, 2005
Not checked in the free run.
May combine two claims.
PremisecitationRestoration of previously institutionalized children to biological families who were ambivalent about care was not associated with cognitive gains, whereas cognitive gains were observed in children adopted by families with a desire to provide care.
“Moreover, another study showed that restoration of PI children to their biological families, who were ambivalent about providing care to their children, was not associated with any cognitive gains, whereas cognitive gains were observed in other PI children who had been adopted by families with a desire to provide care (Hodges & Tizard, 1989).”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites Hodges & Tizard, 1989
Not checked in the free run.
May combine two claims.
InterpretationreasoningInstitutional care does not deterministically cause poor emotional outcomes; there are many exceptions.
“Institutional care does not deterministically result in poor emotional outcomes.”
- Also stated in: § Abstract · plain
“There are huge individual differences within those average values.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim- Rests on an assumption: Development is probabilistic, not deterministic.
- Also stated in: § Abstract · plain
May combine two claims.
PremisecitationAmygdala development has been associated with increased anxiety and lower social competence in previously institutionalized children.
“Amygdala development has also been associated with increased anxiety and lower social competence in PI children (Tottenham, et al., 2011; Tottenham, et al., 2010).”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 2 sources checked- cites Tottenham, et al., 2011 source
Not checked in the free run.
- cites Tottenham, et al., 2010
Not checked in the free run.
May combine two claims.
InterpretationreasoningLonger duration in institutional care is a reliable proxy for the amount of risk a child faces and is linked to the severity of impact on amygdala development.
“the repeatedly found dose-response associations suggest that longer duration in institutional care is a reliable proxy for the amount of risk to which a child is exposed and is associated with severity of impact on amygdala development.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claimMay combine two claims.
Premisenone givenPost-adoption factors, physical growth, and genetics are possible factors that could bias outcomes.
“There are several possible factors that could bias outcomes, and these include, but are not limited to, post adoption factors, physical growth, and genetics.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimProbably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based).
InterpretationreasoningThere are individual differences in developmental outcome even when exposure to risk is held constant.
“However, there may be cases where risk is held constant and yet outcome varies across individuals. That is, there are individual differences in developmental outcome, despite exposure to the same amount of risk.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim- Rests on an assumption: Development is probabilistic, not deterministic.
Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).
Interpretationnone givenIdentifying resilience factors remains an empirical challenge.
“it remains an empirical challenge to identify resilience factors.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim- Rests on an assumption: Resilience factors exist that can explain why some children thrive despite institutional care.
May combine two claims.
InterpretationreasoningMany children thrive after adoption into stable homes, though some continue to struggle.
“Some children may continue to struggle, but many thrive once adopted into stable homes.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim- Rests on an assumption: Resilience factors exist that can explain why some children thrive despite institutional care.
May combine two claims.
Interpretationnone givenInstitutionalization is an atypical rearing environment for human infants that increases the risk of atypical development.
“Institutionalization represents an atypical rearing environment for the human infant that increases the risk for atypical development.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claimProbably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S4 (based).
Interpretationnone givenAdoption into a home environment is a significant, possibly the largest, intervention possible.
“However, adoption into a home environment represents a significant, if not the largest, intervention possible.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimClassified as probably not a substantial claim.
PremisecitationGenetic predispositions may make some maltreated individuals more resilient to psychiatric disorders such as depression.
“One of the more widely-cited studies with adults who were maltreated during childhood has suggested that genetic predispositions may render some individuals more resilient to the development of psychiatric disorders (e.g., depression) (Caspi, et al., 2003).”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites Caspi, et al., 2003 source
Not checked in the free run.
Classified as probably not a substantial claim.
PremisecitationAllostatic load impairs the developing system's ability to meet the child's physical and psychological growth needs.
“Allostatic load is a concept that describes the accumulation of physiological dysregulation and has been hypothesized to impair the developing system’s ability to meet the physical and psychological growth needs of the child (Evans, 2003).”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites Evans, 2003 source
Not checked in the free run.
Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S4 (based).
Interpretationnone givenThe state of the science on resilience factors linked to good outcome is in its infancy.
“Currently, the state of the science on resilience factors associated with good outcome is in its infancy, although this information is surely soon to come.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim- Rests on an assumption: Resilience factors exist that can explain why some children thrive despite institutional care.
The paper relies on this without support.
Development is probabilistic, not deterministic.
“The scientific adage that development is probabilistic, not deterministic is a particularly useful guide for understanding growth in children who have been adopted for institutional care.”
The paper relies on this without support.
Resilience factors exist that can explain why some children thrive despite institutional care.
“A related construct to risk is resilience, a potentially powerful concept that addresses the question of why two children who experience the same adversity may show very different outcomes, and it remains an empirical challenge to identify resilience factors.”
Claims other papers make about this one
Each is checked against this paper’s own text: does it say what the citing paper says it does?
Maternal deprivation is a potent stressor for the human infant.
“Maternal deprivation is a potent stressor for the human infant (as reviewed in Tottenham, 2012), and not surprisingly, emotional health is at significant risk in previously institutionalized children (reviewed in Gunnar et al., 2000).”
From Reduced nucleus accumbens reactivity and adolescent depression following early-life stress (2013) · cites this paper as Tottenham, 2012
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The Science of Early Life Toxic Stress for Pediatric Practice and Advocacy
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Self-citationThe Importance of Early Experiences for Neuro-Affective Development
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Decomposing complex links between the childhood environment and brain structure in school-aged youth
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Diurnal cortisol after early institutional care—Age matters
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- Authors
- Tottenham, N.
- Affiliations
- University of California, Los Angeles (US)
- Corresponding author
- Tottenham, Nim
- ORCID
- Tottenham, Nim
- Venue
- Journal of Adolescent Health
- Publisher
- Elsevier BV
- Published
- 2012-08
- Volume
- 51
- Issue
- 2
- Pages
- S29-S33
- ISSN
- 1054-139X (ISSN-L)
- PMC
- PMC3400928
- OpenAlex
- W2025292431
- Semantic Scholar
- fd4c6e533edf94997c5ab31eda909ad65b31456f
- Cited by
- 67
- References
- 75
- Citations by year
- 2026: 4 · 2025: 2 · 2024: 4 · 2023: 7 · 2022: 5 · 2021: 4 · 2020: 7 · 2019: 5 · 2018: 5 · 2017: 6 · 2016: 2 · 2015: 4 · 2014: 2 · 2013: 6 · 2012: 3
- FWCI
- 1.89
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- green
- europepmc.org
- Locations
- Journal of Adolescent Health (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- Europe PMC (PubMed Central) (acceptedVersion)
- PubMed Central (acceptedVersion)
- Funders
- U.S. Department of State
- National Institutes of Health
- National Institute of Mental Health (P50MH078105, R01MH091864)
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Safety Research › Child Welfare and Adoption
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Clinical Psychology › Child Abuse and Trauma
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Clinical Psychology › Child and Adolescent Psychosocial and Emotional Development
- Keywords
- institutional care, institutionalized children, adoption, developmental outcomes, developmental risk, resilience, brain development, behavioral development, outcome heterogeneity
- MeSH terms
- Adaptation, Psychological, Adoption, Child, Child Behavior, Child Behavior Disorders, Developmental Disabilities, Child Welfare, Child, Institutionalized, Child, Preschool, Female, Foster Home Care, Humans, Infant, Male, Parent-Child Relations, Risk Factors
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Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.
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