Neglect as a violation of species-expectant experience: neurodevelopmental consequences
Open accessAbstract
The human brain requires a wide variety of experiences and environmental inputs in order to develop normally. Children who are neglected by caregivers or raised in institutional environments are deprived of numerous types of species-expectant environmental experiences. In this review, we articulate a model of how the absence of cognitive stimulation and sensory, motor, linguistic, and social experiences common among children raised in deprived early environments constrains early forms of learning, producing long term deficits in complex cognitive function and associative learning. Building on evidence from animal models, we propose that deprivation accelerates the neurodevelopmental process of synaptic pruning and constrains myelination, resulting in age-specific reductions in cortical thickness and white matter integrity among children raised in deprived early environments. We review evidence linking early experiences of psychosocial deprivation to reductions in cognitive ability, associative and implicit learning, language skills, and executive functions as well as atypical patterns of cortical and white matter development—domains that should be profoundly influenced by deprivation through the learning and neural mechanisms we propose. These patterns of atypical development are difficult to explain with existing models that emphasize stress pathways and accelerated limbic system development. A learning account of how deprived early environments influence cognitive and neural development provides a complementary perspective to stress models and highlights novel pathways through which deprivation might confer risk for internalizing and externalizing psychopathology. We end by reviewing evidence for plasticity in cognitive and neural development among children raised in deprived environments following interventions that improve caregiving quality.
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- Premisecitation
The human brain needs many environmental experiences, some during sensitive periods, to develop normally.
“The human brain requires a wide variety of experiences and environmental inputs, some during sensitive periods, in order to develop normally.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites [1] Greenough, 1987, Experience and brain development, Child Dev source
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- Premisecitation
Caregivers are necessary for early survival by providing nutrition and safety from threats.
“Caregivers are necessary to ensure survival in early human development by providing nutrition and ensuring safety from threats.(10)”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites [10] Nelson, 1999, Neural plasticity and human development, Curr Dir Psychol Sci source
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- Premisecitation
The developmental consequences of deprivation and threat are at least partially distinct.
“Although experiences of deprivation often co-occur with experiences of threat (i.e., abuse), the developmental consequences of deprivation and threat are at least partially distinct.(7–9)”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 3 sources checked- cites [7] McLaughlin, 2014, Childhood adversity and neural development: Deprivation and threat as distinct dimensions of early experience, Neurosci Biobehav Rev source
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- cites [8] McLaughlin, 2016, Beyond cumulative risk: A dimensional approach to childhood adversity, Curr Dir Psychol Sci source
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- cites [9] Sheridan, 2014, Dimensions of early experience and neural development: Deprivation and threat, Trends Cogn Sci source
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- Premisecitation
Neglected children do not consistently receive sensitive, supportive, stable caregiving.
“Neglected children are not afforded sensitive, supportive, and stable caregiving on a consistent basis.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 3 sources checked- cites [16] Kaufman Kantor, 2004, Development and preliminary psychometric properties of the Multidimensional Neglectful Behavior Scale–Child Report, Child Maltreat source
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- Premisecitation
The developmental consequences of neglect are understudied compared with other forms of adversity.
“Despite the high prevalence of neglectful early environments, the developmental consequences of neglect are understudied as compared to other forms of adversity.(6)”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites [6] Stoltenborgh, 2013, The neglect of child neglect: A meta-analytic review of the prevalence of neglect, Soc Psychiatry Psychiatr Epidemiol source
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- Premisecitation
Deprivation is the core feature that distinguishes neglect from trauma and abuse.
“Deprivation is the core feature of neglect that distinguishes it from other forms of adversity, such as trauma and abuse, where the most prominent feature is harm or threat of harm to the child.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 3 sources checked- cites [7] McLaughlin, 2014, Childhood adversity and neural development: Deprivation and threat as distinct dimensions of early experience, Neurosci Biobehav Rev source
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- cites [8] McLaughlin, 2016, Beyond cumulative risk: A dimensional approach to childhood adversity, Curr Dir Psychol Sci source
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- cites [9] Sheridan, 2014, Dimensions of early experience and neural development: Deprivation and threat, Trends Cogn Sci source
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- Premisecitation
Secure attachment develops when caregiving is sensitive, responsive, and predictable.
“Children develop a secure attachment when caregiving is sensitive, responsive, and predictable.(12–15)”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 4 sources checked- cites [12] Bowlby, 1969, Attachment and Loss
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- cites [13] Ainsworth, 1978
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- Premisereasoning
Neglected children lack a stable, sensitive, responsive caregiver, which is a species-expectant experience.
“At the most fundamental level, neglected children are deprived of a stable, sensitive, and responsive caregiver, which is a species-expectant experience.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Premisecitation
Infants have a behavioral repertoire that promotes caregiver protection and proximity.
“Infants are born with a behavioral repertoire designed to ensure caregiver protection and proximity (e.g., crying).(11)”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites [11] Ainsworth, 1985, Patterns of infant–mother attachments: Antecedents and effects on development, Bull N Y Acad Med
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- Premisecitation
Parents with documented neglect histories show low emotional warmth, positive behaviors, and empathy.
“Parents with documented histories of neglect generally show low levels of emotional warmth, positive behaviors, and empathy.(16–18)”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 3 sources checked- cites [16] Kaufman Kantor, 2004, Development and preliminary psychometric properties of the Multidimensional Neglectful Behavior Scale–Child Report, Child Maltreat source
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- cites [17] Gaudin, 1996, Family functioning in neglectful families, Child Abuse Negl source
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- cites [18] Bousha, 1984, Mother–child interactional style in abuse, neglect, and control groups: Naturalistic observations in the home, J Abnorm Psychol source
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- Premisecitation
Neglectful families exhibit irregular and unstable caregiving.
“Neglectful families also exhibit caregiving that is irregular and unstable.(17)”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites [17] Gaudin, 1996, Family functioning in neglectful families, Child Abuse Negl source
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- Premisecitation
In some domains such as language, environmental input must occur in social interaction to generate learning.
“In some domains (e.g., language), exposure to environmental input must occur in the context of social interaction to generate learning.(20, 21)”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 2 sources checked- cites [20] Kuhl, 2003, Foreign-language experience in infancy: Effects of short-term exposure and social interaction on phonetic learning, Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A source
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- Premisecitation
Neglected children exhibit deficits in many areas of cognitive development.
“One of the most consistent observations of neglected children is that they exhibit deficits in numerous areas of cognitive development,(27, 28)”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 2 sources checked - Premisecitation
Child-directed language has unique acoustic properties.
“Child-directed language has unique acoustic properties(43–45)”
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- Interpretationreasoning
Early deprivation constrains basic forms of learning that depend on rich sensory and social inputs, including associative and implicit learning.
“Early deprivation constrains basic forms of learning that depend on rich sensory and social inputs early in development, including associative and implicit learning.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim- Rests on an assumption: Early learning occurs mainly through interactions with a caregiver.
- Rests on an assumption: Caregivers regulate exposure to language, social interaction, and sensory and motor stimulation.
- Premisecitation
Caregivers direct children's attention to relevant stimuli through vocalizations, facial displays, and tactile stimulation, aiding learning.
“Caregivers play a critical role in the development of these learning processes by directing children’s attention to relevant stimuli in the environment through repetitive vocalizations, facial displays, and tactile stimulation.(42)”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites [42] Stern, 1977, The infant’s stimulus world during social interaction: A study of caregiver behaviors with particular reference to repetition and timing
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- Interpretationreasoning
Disruptions in limbic system development alone are not sufficient to explain the widespread cognitive effects of neglect.
“Are disruptions in limbic system development sufficient to explain these widespread cognitive effects? We argue that additional mechanisms are at work.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Premisecitation
If a child passes through a sensitive period without the expected inputs, development in those domains will be compromised.
“When a child passes through the sensitive period without such inputs, development will be compromised in those domains.(58)”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites [58] Nelson, 2007, A neurobiological perspective on early human deprivation, Child Dev Perspect source
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- Interpretationreasoning
A common learning mechanism, constrained associative learning, might explain the consequences of deprivation across sensory, linguistic, cognitive, and social domains on cognitive development.
“Here we propose a common learning mechanism—constrained associative learning—that might explain the consequences of deprivation in each of these domains on cognitive development”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim - Premisecitation
Language development relies on implicit learning of regularities in speech and their pairing with visual cues in the environment.
“Language development relies on implicit learning of regularities in speech and their pairing with visual cues in the environment.(51–56)”
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- Premisecitation
Associative learning provides scaffolding for executive functions including conflict adaptation, response inhibition, cognitive flexibility, and attentional control.
“Associative learning also provides the scaffolding for executive functions, including conflict adaptation, response inhibition, cognitive flexibility, and attentional control.(57)”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites [57] Abrahamse, 2016, Grounding cognitive control in associative learning, Psychol Bull source
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- Interpretationreasoning
In neglectful environments lacking caregiver speech directed to the child, associative and implicit learning are likely constrained.
“In the absence of caregiver speech directed to the child—a feature of neglectful environments,(17, 19) associative and implicit learning are likely to be constrained.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 2 sources checked- cites [17] Gaudin, 1996, Family functioning in neglectful families, Child Abuse Negl source
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- cites [19] Smyke, 2007, The caregiving context in institution-reared and family-reared infants and toddlers in Romania, J Child Psychol Psychiatry source
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- Rests on an assumption: Implicit learning depends on a rich sensory environment and observable regularities.
- Premisecitation
Child-directed speech from depressed caregivers fails to promote infant associative learning.
“Indeed, child-directed speech produced by caregivers with depression fails to promote infant associative learning(49)”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites [49] Kaplan, 1999, Child-directed speech produced by mothers with symptoms of depression fails to promote associative learning in 4-month old infants, Child Dev source
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- Premisecitation
This failure is due to reduced perceptual salience of caregiver vocalizations that lack typical child-directed acoustic properties.
“due to reduced perceptual salience of caregiver vocalizations that lack the typical acoustic properties of child-directed speech.(50)”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites [50] Kaplan, 2002, Infants of depressed mothers, although competent learners, fail to learn in response to their own mothers’ infant-directed speech, Psychol Sci source
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- Interpretationreasoning
Early disruptions in associative learning may produce difficulties in multiple executive function domains by reducing associations between goal representations and relevant environmental stimuli.
“Early disruptions in associative learning may produce difficulties in multiple domains of executive functioning by reducing associations between goal representations and relevant environmental stimuli in a particular context.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Interpretationreasoning
Atypical early development of associative and implicit learning may propagate to deficits in general cognitive abilities, language, and executive functioning.
“Atypical early development of these types of learning may propagate throughout myriad domains of development, producing deficits in general cognitive abilities, language, and executive functioning.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim- Rests on an assumption: Associative and implicit learning are the foundation for more complex cognition and learning.
- Interpretationreasoning
Environmental deprivation hijacks synaptic pruning, causing accelerated and extreme synapse elimination.
“We propose that environmental deprivation hijacks the developmental process of synaptic pruning, resulting in accelerated and extreme synapse elimination (see Figure 1).”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Premisecitation
Long-term potentiation underlies many forms of learning, including experience-expectant learning.
“Long-term potentiation underlies numerous forms of learning, including experience-expectant learning.(62, 63)”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 2 sources checked - Premisecitation
An over-production of synapses early in development that are pruned as a function of experience provides the biological basis for experience-expectant learning.
“An over-production of synaptic connections early in development that are pruned as a function of experience provides the biological basis for experience-expectant learning.(1)”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites [1] Greenough, 1987, Experience and brain development, Child Dev source
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- Premisecitation
Synaptic pruning is a central force in experience-driven brain remodeling across development.
“Synaptic pruning is a central force in the remodeling of the brain across development in response to experience.(60)”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites [60] Petanjek, 2011, Extraordinary neoteny of synaptic spines in the human prefrontal cortex, Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A source
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- Premisecitation
Animals deprived of visual input early in development show reductions in synapses, dendritic branching, and dendritic spine number and density in visual cortex.
“Animals deprived of visual input early in development exhibit dramatic reductions in synapses, dendritic branching, and the number and density of dendritic spines in visual cortex.(66–70).”
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- Premisecitation
Synaptic pruning is an activity-dependent process that selectively eliminates infrequently used synaptic connections.
“Pruning is an activity-dependent developmental process that selectively eliminates synaptic connections that are utilized infrequently.(59–61)”
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- Premisecitation
These changes produce measurable reductions in visual cortex thickness in visually deprived animals.
“These changes produce measurable reductions in the thickness of visual cortex in animals deprived of visual input.(70)”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites [70] Fifkova, 1970, The effect of unilateral deprivation on visual centers in rats, J Comp Neurol source
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- Premisecitation
Early environmental deprivation in animals also causes poor white matter integrity from reduced myelination and axon-sprouting, particularly in posterior corpus callosum and prefrontal cortex.
“poor white matter integrity resulting from reduced myelination and axon-sprouting also occurs in animals exposed to early environmental deprivation, particularly in the posterior corpus callosum(82) and prefrontal cortex (PFC).(83)”
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- Premisecitation
These neural changes in deprived animals are accompanied by deficits in many forms of learning and memory.
“These neural changes are accompanied by deficits in numerous forms of learning and memory.(77–81)”
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- Premisecitation
Tizard's study found that children raised in relatively mild institutional deprivation had lower IQ than family-raised children.
“Tizard’s seminal study of children raised in institutions characterized by relatively mild deprivation nonetheless demonstrated that these children had lower IQ than children raised in families.(92)”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites [92] Tizard, 1974, A comparison of the effects of adoption, restoration to the natural mother, and continued institutionalization on the cognitive development of four-year-old children, Child Dev source
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- Premisecitation
Children exposed to neglect and institutional rearing have dramatic reductions in cognitive ability.
“Indeed, children exposed to neglect and institutional rearing experience dramatic reductions in cognitive ability.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 6 sources checked- cites [41] Hildyard, 2002, Child neglect: Developmental issues and outcomes, Child Abuse Negl source
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- cites [87] Spratt, 2012, The effects of early neglect on cognitive, language, and behavioral functioning in childhood, Psychology source
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- Premisecitation
In Tizard's study, the degree of environmental stimulation was positively associated with cognitive ability.
“Critically, the degree of environmental stimulation children received—including literary experiences, interactions with adults, and experiences outside the institution—was positively associated with cognitive ability.(92)”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites [92] Tizard, 1974, A comparison of the effects of adoption, restoration to the natural mother, and continued institutionalization on the cognitive development of four-year-old children, Child Dev source
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- Premisecitation
Institutionally-reared children show reduced activation in ventral striatum during reward anticipation and in response to positive cues.
“Institutionally-reared children also exhibit reduced activation in the ventral striatum—a region centrally involved in reward processing—during reward anticipation and in response to positive cues.(101, 102)”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 2 sources checked- cites [101] Mehta, 2010, Hyporesponsive reward anticipation in the basal ganglia following severe institutional deprivation early in life, J Cogn Neurosci source
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- Interpretationreasoning
These cognitive findings are consistent with a learning account in which the degree and duration of cognitive and social stimulation in the early environment is strongly associated with global cognitive abilities.
“These findings are consistent with a learning account of deprivation in which the degree and duration of cognitive and social stimulation in the early environment is strongly associated with global cognitive abilities.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Interpretationcitation
Existing evidence supports the prediction that early deprivation is associated with atypical stimulus-response associative learning.
“Existing evidence supports the prediction that early deprivation is associated with atypical stimulus-response associative learning.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim- Rests on an assumption: Children with responsive caregivers learn that signs of distress produce caregiver proximity, soothing, food, or removal of a source of distress.
- Premisecitation
Children raised in institutional settings show meaningful reductions in language ability associated with duration of institutional care.
“Children raised in institutional settings also exhibit meaningful reductions in language ability that are associated with the duration of institutional care.(109, 114–116)”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 4 sources checked- cites [109] Farah, 2008, Environmental stimulation, parental nurturance and cognitive development in humans, Dev Sci source
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- cites [114] Rakhlin, 2015, Language development of internationally adopted children: Adverse early experiences outweigh the age of acquisition effect, J Commun Disord source
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- Premisecitation
Internationally adopted children performed no worse than non-adopted children on an implicit learning task.
“The first examined children adopted into the U.S. internationally, who performed no worse than non-adopted children on an implicit learning task.(109)”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites [109] Farah, 2008, Environmental stimulation, parental nurturance and cognitive development in humans, Dev Sci source
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- Premisecitation
Children raised in institutions show less efficient dorsolateral prefrontal cortex recruitment in tasks requiring executive control.
“and a less efficient pattern of dorsolateral PFC recruitment in tasks requiring executive control.(127)”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites [127] Mehta, 2009, Amygdala, hippocampal and corpus callosum size following severe early institutional deprivation: The English and Romanian Adoptees Study pilot, J Child Psychol Psychiatry source
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- Premisenone given
Executive function deficits often persist after removal from a deprived environment.
“EF deficits often persist after removal from a deprived environment, which is surprising given the extended development of brain regions that support these functions.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Premisecitation
Children raised in institutions exhibit poor performance on tests of working memory, inhibition, planning, sustained attention, and cognitive flexibility.
“Children raised in institutions exhibit poor performance on tests of working memory, inhibition, planning, sustained attention, and cognitive flexibility(98, 109, 121–127)”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 9 sources checked- cites [98] Pollak, 2010, Neurodevelopmental effects of early deprivation in postinstitutionalized children, Child Dev source
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- cites [109] Farah, 2008, Environmental stimulation, parental nurturance and cognitive development in humans, Dev Sci source
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- cites [121] Tibu, 2016, Disruptions of working memory and inhibition mediate the association between exposure to institutionalization and symptoms of attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder, Psychol Med source
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- cites [122] McDermott, 2013, Psychosocial deprivation, executive functions and the emergence of socio-emotional behavior problems, Front Hum Neurosci source
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- cites [123] Colvert, 2008, Do theory of mind and executive functioning deficits underlie the adverse outcomes associated with profound early deprivation? Findings from the English and Romanian Adoptees Study, J Abnorm Child Psychol source
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- cites [124] Hostinar, 2012, Associations between early life adversity and executive function in children adopted internationally from orphanages, Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A source
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- cites [125] Loman, 2013, The effect of early deprivation on executive attention in middle childhood, J Child Psychol Psychiatry source
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- cites [126] Mueller, 2010, Early-life stress is associated with impairment in cognitive control in adolescence: An fMRI study, Neuropsychologia source
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- cites [127] Mehta, 2009, Amygdala, hippocampal and corpus callosum size following severe early institutional deprivation: The English and Romanian Adoptees Study pilot, J Child Psychol Psychiatry source
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- Premisecitation
Executive function performance is worse in children with more severe and longer lasting deprivation.
“EF performance is worse in children with more severe and longer lasting deprivation.(98, 109, 124, 125)”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 4 sources checked- cites [98] Pollak, 2010, Neurodevelopmental effects of early deprivation in postinstitutionalized children, Child Dev source
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- cites [109] Farah, 2008, Environmental stimulation, parental nurturance and cognitive development in humans, Dev Sci source
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- cites [124] Hostinar, 2012, Associations between early life adversity and executive function in children adopted internationally from orphanages, Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A source
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- cites [125] Loman, 2013, The effect of early deprivation on executive attention in middle childhood, J Child Psychol Psychiatry source
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- Interpretationcitation
Executive function deficits, reductions in cortical thickness, and tonic cortical hypoactivation are mechanisms that explain the association of early deprivation with ADHD.
“EF deficits—particularly in working memory and inhibition, reductions in cortical thickness, and patterns of neural function reflecting tonic cortical hypo-activation are mechanisms that explain the association of early deprivation with ADHD.(122, 130, 141)”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 3 sources checked- cites [122] McDermott, 2013, Psychosocial deprivation, executive functions and the emergence of socio-emotional behavior problems, Front Hum Neurosci source
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- cites [130] Bauer, 2009, Cerebellar volume and cognitive functioning in children who experienced early deprivation, Biol Psychiatry source
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- cites [141] Pizzagalli, 2009, Reduced caudate and nucleus accumbens response to rewards in unmedicated individuals with major depressive disorder, Am J Psychiatry source
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- Premisecitation
Reduced cerebellum volume has been reported in one study of children raised in institutions.
“Reduced cerebellum volume has also been reported in one study of children raised in institutions.(131)”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites [131] Marshall, 2004, A comparison of the electroencephalogram between institutionalized and community children, J Cogn Neurosci source
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- Premisecitation
Internalizing psychopathology following early deprivation improves after removal from a deprived environment.
“In contrast, internalizing psychopathology following early deprivation improves following removal from a deprived environment(38, 40)”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 2 sources checked- cites [38] Zeanah, 2009, Institutional rearing and psychiatric disorders in Romanian preschool children, Am J Psychiatry source
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- cites [40] Humphreys, 2015, Effects of institutional rearing and foster care on psychopathology at age 12 years in Romania: Follow-up of an open, randomised controlled trial, Lancet Psychiatry source
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- Premisecitation
Similar effects on cognitive development have been observed in intervention studies designed to improve caregiving quality in institutions.
“similar effects on cognitive development have also been observed in intervention studies designed to improve caregiving quality in institutions.(145)”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites [145] Smyke, 2010, Placement in foster care enhances quality of attachment among young institutionalized children, Child Dev source
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- Interpretationreasoning
Changes in neural structure and cognitive function related to early deprivation may be a core mechanism underlying externalizing psychopathology in children exposed to early deprivation.
“Changes in neural structure and cognitive function related to early deprivation may be a core mechanism underlying the development of externalizing psychopathology in children exposed to early deprivation.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Premisecitation
Improvements in anxiety and depression after early deprivation are explained in part by development of secure attachment to a new caregiver among adopted children.
“Improvements in anxiety and depression following early deprivation are explained, in part, by the development of a secure attachment to a new caregiver among adopted children.(39)”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites [39] McLaughlin, 2012, Attachment security as a mechanism linking foster care placement to improved mental health outcomes in previously institutionalized children, J Child Psychol Psychiatry source
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- Premisecitation
The Bucharest Early Intervention Project was the first randomized controlled trial of foster care as an intervention for early institutionalization.
“One example is the Bucharest Early Intervention Project (BEIP), the first randomized controlled trial of foster care as an intervention for early institutionalization.(23, 144)”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 2 sources checked- cites [23] Zeanah, 2003, Designing research to study the effects of institutionalization on brain and behavioral development: The Bucharest Early Intervention Project, Dev Psychopathol source
Not checked in the free run.
- cites [144] Hermenau, 2016, Fostering child develpment by improving care quality: A systematic review of the effectiveness of structural interventions and caregiver trainings in institutional care [published online ahead of print Apr 12], Trauma Violence Abuse
Not checked in the free run.
- Interpretationreasoning
Disruptions in reward learning are a plausible additional pathway linking deprivation to multiple forms of psychopathology.
“It seems plausible that disruptions in reward learning are an additional pathway explaining the link between deprivation and multiple forms of psychopathology.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Interpretationreasoning
Deprived environments restrict myelination.
“limit myelination”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim - Interpretationreasoning
Such developmental disruptions might increase the likelihood of psychopathology.
“These developmental disruptions, in turn, may confer risk for psychopathology”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Premisereasoning
Psychiatric disorders occur frequently in children who have been neglected or raised in institutions.
“which is common among neglected and institutionally-reared children.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Interpretationnone given
Deprived environments speed up synaptic pruning during neurodevelopment.
“accelerate the neurodevelopmental process of synaptic pruning”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim - Interpretationnone given
Neglect and institutional rearing deprive children of numerous environmental experiences that the human brain expects for normal development.
“Child neglect and institutional rearing deprive children of numerous environmental experiences the human brain expects to develop normally.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Premisenone given
Earlier removal from the institution led to more dramatic improvements in IQ, language, neural function, stress reactivity, and attachment.
“Earlier removal from the institution led to more dramatic improvements in IQ, language, neural function, stress reactivity, and attachment.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Interpretationreasoning
Deprivation leads to enduring changes across multiple cognitive areas, such as overall cognitive ability, associative and implicit learning, language, and executive functions.
“This deprivation produces lasting alterations in many domains of cognitive development, including general cognitive ability, associative and implicit learning, language, and executive functions”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim - Interpretationreasoning
Environments lacking stimulation restrict early learning that depends on expected experiences.
“deprived environments constrain early forms of experience-expectant learning”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Interpretationreasoning
These mechanisms together lead to atypical cognitive and brain development.
“ultimately producing these atypical patterns of cognitive and brain development”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
- May combine two claims. 27
- Classified as probably not a substantial claim. 6
May combine two claims.
PremisecitationInstitutional environments have infrequent caregiver interactions and low contingent responding.
“A similar absence of emotionally supportive caregiving occurs in institutional environments, where caregiver interactions with children are infrequent and contingent responding is low.(19)”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites [19] Smyke, 2007, The caregiving context in institution-reared and family-reared infants and toddlers in Romania, J Child Psychol Psychiatry source
Not checked in the free run.
May combine two claims.
PremisecitationChildren in institutions experience dramatic reductions in language exposure, adult interactions, routine variation, and enriching cognitive stimuli.
“Similarly, children raised in institutions experience dramatic reductions in exposure to language, less frequent and predictable interactions with adults, limited variation in daily routines and experiences, and less access to novel and age-appropriate enriching cognitive stimuli than children raised in families.(19, 23, 24)”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 3 sources checked- cites [19] Smyke, 2007, The caregiving context in institution-reared and family-reared infants and toddlers in Romania, J Child Psychol Psychiatry source
Not checked in the free run.
- cites [23] Zeanah, 2003, Designing research to study the effects of institutionalization on brain and behavioral development: The Bucharest Early Intervention Project, Dev Psychopathol source
Not checked in the free run.
- cites [24] Nelson, 2009, The deprived human brain, Am Sci source
Not checked in the free run.
May combine two claims.
PremisecitationNeglected children show reductions in cognitive stimulation, learning opportunities, adult supervision, and parent-child interactions.
“Indeed, reductions in cognitive stimulation, provision of learning opportunities, supervision by adults, and parent-child interactions have been observed among children who are neglected.(16, 18, 22)”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 3 sources checked- cites [16] Kaufman Kantor, 2004, Development and preliminary psychometric properties of the Multidimensional Neglectful Behavior Scale–Child Report, Child Maltreat source
Not checked in the free run.
- cites [18] Bousha, 1984, Mother–child interactional style in abuse, neglect, and control groups: Naturalistic observations in the home, J Abnorm Psychol source
Not checked in the free run.
- cites [22] Hines, 2006, Similarities in siblings’ experiences of neglectful parenting behaviors, Child Abuse Negl source
Not checked in the free run.
Classified as probably not a substantial claim.
PremisecitationMost existing models emphasize atypical limbic system development from prolonged early-life stress as a central mechanism for outcomes associated with caregiver deprivation.
“Most existing models emphasize atypical limbic system development resulting from prolonged early-life stress as a central mechanism underlying developmental outcomes associated with caregiver deprivation.(25–31)”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 7 sources checked- cites [25] Tottenham, 2012, Human amygdala development in the absence of species-typical expected caregiving, Dev Psychobiol source
Not checked in the free run.
- cites [26] Callaghan, 2016, The neuro-environmental loop of plasticity: A cross-species analysis of parental effects on emotion circuitry development following typical and adverse caregiving, Neuropsychopharmacology source
Not checked in the free run.
- cites [27] Pechtel, 2011, Effects of early life stress on cognitive and affective function: An integrated review of human literature, Psychopharmacology source
Not checked in the free run.
- cites [28] De Bellis, 2005, The psychobiology of neglect, Child Maltreat source
Not checked in the free run.
- cites [29] Shonkoff, 2012, The lifelong effects of early childhood adversity and toxic stress, Pediatrics source
Not checked in the free run.
- cites [30] Lupien, 2009, Effects of stress throughout the lifespan on the brain, behaviour and cognition, Nat Rev Neurosci source
Not checked in the free run.
- cites [31] Teicher, 2016, Annual research review: Enduring neurobiological effects of childhood abuse and neglect, J Child Psychol Psychiatry source
Not checked in the free run.
Classified as probably not a substantial claim. May combine two claims.
PremisecitationChildren deprived of a stable responsive caregiver show high insecure and disorganized attachment and atypical affective development, including heightened emotional reactivity, accelerated amygdala development, poor emotion regulation, and atypical stress reactivity.
“Children deprived of a stable and responsive caregiver exhibit high levels of insecure and disorganized attachment and atypical affective development characterized by heightened emotional reactivity, accelerated functional development of the amygdala, poor emotion regulation, and atypical stress reactivity.(25, 32–37)”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 7 sources checked- cites [25] Tottenham, 2012, Human amygdala development in the absence of species-typical expected caregiving, Dev Psychobiol source
Not checked in the free run.
- cites [32] Tottenham, 2011, Elevated amygdala response to faces following early deprivation, Dev Sci source
Not checked in the free run.
- cites [33] Tottenham, 2010, Prolonged institutional rearing is associated with atypically larger amygdala volume and difficulties in emotion regulation, Dev Sci source
Not checked in the free run.
- cites [34] McLaughlin, 2015, Causal effects of the early caregiving environment on stress response system development in children, Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A source
Not checked in the free run.
- cites [35] Gunnar, 2009, Moderate versus severe early life stress: Associations with stress reactivity and regulation in 10-12 year-old children, Psychoneuroendocrinology source
Not checked in the free run.
- cites [36] Zeanah, 2005, Attachment in institutionalized and community children in Romania, Child Dev source
Not checked in the free run.
- cites [37] Gee, 2013, Early developmental emergence of human amygdala-prefrontal connectivity after maternal deprivation
Not checked in the free run.
Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).
PremisecitationDisruptions in attachment and affective development contribute to high internalizing psychopathology among children raised in deprived early environments.
“These disruptions in attachment and affective development contribute to high levels of internalizing psychopathology among children raised in deprived early environments.(31, 38–40)”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 4 sources checked- cites [31] Teicher, 2016, Annual research review: Enduring neurobiological effects of childhood abuse and neglect, J Child Psychol Psychiatry source
Not checked in the free run.
- cites [38] Zeanah, 2009, Institutional rearing and psychiatric disorders in Romanian preschool children, Am J Psychiatry source
Not checked in the free run.
- cites [39] McLaughlin, 2012, Attachment security as a mechanism linking foster care placement to improved mental health outcomes in previously institutionalized children, J Child Psychol Psychiatry source
Not checked in the free run.
- cites [40] Humphreys, 2015, Effects of institutional rearing and foster care on psychopathology at age 12 years in Romania: Follow-up of an open, randomised controlled trial, Lancet Psychiatry source
Not checked in the free run.
Classified as probably not a substantial claim.
PremisecitationCognitive deficits in neglected children are more extreme than those observed in other forms of adversity such as abuse.
“and these deficits are more extreme than those observed in other forms of adversity (e.g., abuse).(41)”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites [41] Hildyard, 2002, Child neglect: Developmental issues and outcomes, Child Abuse Negl source
Not checked in the free run.
May combine two claims.
InterpretationreasoningA learning account predicts that neglect will be associated with atypical cognitive development in many domains, including poor associative and implicit learning, global cognitive declines, and language and executive function deficits.
“Altogether, a learning account of deprivation predicts that neglect will be associated with atypical cognitive development in many domains, including poor associative and implicit learning, global declines in cognitive functioning, and deficits in language and executive functioning.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimMay combine two claims.
PremisecitationChild-directed language shapes early learning by increasing infant attention to external stimuli and enhancing associative learning.
“that shape early learning by increasing infant attention to external stimuli and enhancing associative learning.(46–48)”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 3 sources checked- cites [46] Cooper, 1990, Preference for infant‐directed speech in the first month after birth, Child Dev source
Not checked in the free run.
- cites [47] Werker, 1989, Infant preference for both male and female infant-directed talk: A developmental study of attentional and affective responsiveness, Can J Psychol source
Not checked in the free run.
- cites [48] Kaplan, 1996, Infant-directed versus adult-directed speech as signals for faces, Dev Psychol source
Not checked in the free run.
May combine two claims.
PremisecitationInfrequent co-activation weakens and likely eliminates synaptic connections.
“In contrast, when two cells co-activate infrequently, dendritic spines shrink or disappear, and the synaptic connection weakens and is likely to be eliminated.(64, 65)”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 2 sources checked- cites [64] Zhou, 2004, Shrinkage of dendritic spines associated with long-term depression of hippocampal synapses, Neuron source
Not checked in the free run.
- cites [65] Rakic, 1986, Concurrent overproduction of synapses in diverse regions of the primate cerebral cortex, Science source
Not checked in the free run.
May combine two claims.
PremisecitationFrequent co-activation of two cells strengthens their synaptic connection and increases dendritic spine density.
“When two cells co-activate frequently, the synaptic connection between them strengthens and becomes more efficient, resulting in long-term potentiation and increases in the density and number of dendritic spines on post-synaptic neurons.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 2 sources checkedMay combine two claims.
PremisecitationAnimals raised in deprived environments show reductions in synapses per neuron, cortical dendritic spine density, dendritic branching and length, and cortical thickness.
“Animals raised in a deprived environment exhibit reductions in the number of synapses per neuron;(71) the density of cortical dendritic spines,(72); the branching and length of dendrites(73, 74); and cortical thickness.(75, 76)”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 6 sources checked- cites [71] Turner, 1985, Differential rearing effects on rat visual cortex synapses: I. Synaptic and neuronal density and synapses per neuron, Brain Res source
Not checked in the free run.
- cites [72] Globus, 1973, Effects of differential experience on dendritic spine counts in rat cerebral cortex, J Comp Physiol Psychol source
Not checked in the free run.
- cites [73] Greenough, 1973, Pattern of dendritic branching in occipital cortex of rats reared in complex environments, Exp Neurol source
Not checked in the free run.
- cites [74] Volkmar, 1972, Rearing complexity affects branching of dendrites in the visual cortex of the rat, Science source
Not checked in the free run.
- cites [75] Diamond, 1966, Increases in cortical depth and glia numbers in rats subjected to enriched environment, J Comp Neurol source
Not checked in the free run.
- cites [76] Diamond, 1967, Extensive cortical depth measurements and neuron size increases in the cortex of environmentally enriched rats, J Comp Neurol source
Not checked in the free run.
May combine two claims.
PremisecitationNeglected children have lower IQ and academic performance than children in typical caregiving environments.
“Neglected children have lower IQ and academic performance than children raised in typical caregiving environments.(41, 87–91)”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 6 sources checked- cites [41] Hildyard, 2002, Child neglect: Developmental issues and outcomes, Child Abuse Negl source
Not checked in the free run.
- cites [87] Spratt, 2012, The effects of early neglect on cognitive, language, and behavioral functioning in childhood, Psychology source
Not checked in the free run.
- cites [88] Erickson, 1989, The effects of maltreatment on the development of young children
Not checked in the free run.
- cites [89] Eckenrode, 1993, School performance and disciplinary problems among abused and neglected children, Dev Psychol source
Not checked in the free run.
- cites [90] Wodarski, 1990, Maltreatment and the school-aged child: Major academic, socioemotional, and adaptive outcomes, Soc Work source
Not checked in the free run.
- cites [91] Perez, 1994, Childhood victimization and long-term intellectual and academic outcomes, Child Abuse Negl source
Not checked in the free run.
May combine two claims.
InterpretationreasoningDeprivation is expected to be associated with exaggerated synapse elimination, reduced dendritic branching and density throughout cortex, and reduced myelination in corpus callosum and prefrontal cortex; these should produce reductions in cortical thickness and fractional anisotropy measurable by MRI.
“Specifically, we expect deprivation to be associated with exaggerated synapse elimination, reduced dendritic branching and density throughout the cortex, and reduced myelination in the corpus callosum and PFC; although these cellular processes cannot be studied directly in humans, they should produce reductions in cortical thickness (see Figure 2) and fractional anisotropy (FA) measurable by MRI.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim- Rests on an assumption: Animal models of global deprivation resemble human neglect in relevant ways.
May combine two claims.
PremisecitationDramatic IQ reductions among children reared in deprived institutions are widely replicated and associated with duration of institutional care.
“Dramatic reductions in IQ among children reared in deprived institutional settings have been widely replicated, and are associated with the duration of institutional care.(93–95)”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 3 sources checked- cites [93] Nelson, 2007, Cognitive recovery in socially deprived young children: The Bucharest Early Intervention Project, Science source
Not checked in the free run.
- cites [94] Fox, 2011, The effects of severe psychosocial deprivation and foster care intervention on cognitive development at 8 years of age: Findings from the Bucharest Early Intervention Project, J Child Psychol Psychiatry source
Not checked in the free run.
- cites [95] O’Connor, 2000, The effects of global severe privation on cognitive competence: Extension and longitudinal follow-up—English and Romanian Adoptees Study Team, Child Dev source
Not checked in the free run.
May combine two claims.
PremisecitationChildren exposed to institutional deprivation were less likely to learn a pattern of numbers in a serial reaction time task, with slower reaction time and lower accuracy on patterned versus non-patterned trials.
“Children exposed to institutional deprivation were less likely to learn a pattern of numbers embedded in a serial reaction time task, as indicated by slower reaction time and lower accuracy than comparison children on patterned relative to non-patterned trials.(100)”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites [100] Goff, 2013, : Reduced nucleus accumbens reactivity and adolescent depression following early-life stress, Neuroscience source
Not checked in the free run.
May combine two claims.
PremisecitationPoor expressive and receptive language are consistently observed in neglected children and are more pronounced than language difficulties associated with abuse.
“Poor expressive and receptive language have been consistently observed in neglected children, who exhibit language difficulties that are more pronounced than those associated with abuse.(87, 112, 113)”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 3 sources checked- cites [87] Spratt, 2012, The effects of early neglect on cognitive, language, and behavioral functioning in childhood, Psychology source
Not checked in the free run.
- cites [112] Culp, 1991, Maltreated children’s language and speech development: Abused, neglected, and abused and neglected, First Lang source
Not checked in the free run.
- cites [113] Windsor, 2011, Effect of foster care on young children’s language learning, Child Dev source
Not checked in the free run.
May combine two claims.
InterpretationreasoningThese internationally adopted children had cognitive abilities no different from comparison children, suggesting a less deprived institutional experience.
“These children displayed cognitive abilities that were no different than comparison children, suggesting a less deprived institutional experience.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimMay combine two claims.
PremisecitationPoor stimulus-response learning is observed in children raised in institutions and is associated with duration of institutional care.
“Poor stimulus-response learning has been observed in children raised in institutions and is associated with the duration of institutional care.(98)”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites [98] Pollak, 2010, Neurodevelopmental effects of early deprivation in postinstitutionalized children, Child Dev source
Not checked in the free run.
May combine two claims.
PremisecitationChildren reared in institutions do not alter behavioral responses to stimuli based on reward value, whereas typically developing children are faster and more accurate for rewarded versus non-rewarded stimuli.
“Children reared in institutions do not alter behavioral responses to stimuli as a function of reward-value, whereas typically-developing children are faster and more accurate in responding to rewarded vs. non-rewarded stimuli.(99, 100)”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 2 sources checked- cites [99] Wismer Fries, 2017, The role of learning in social development: Illustrations from neglected children, Dev Sci source
Not checked in the free run.
- cites [100] Goff, 2013, : Reduced nucleus accumbens reactivity and adolescent depression following early-life stress, Neuroscience source
Not checked in the free run.
May combine two claims.
PremisecitationChildren reared in deprived institutions exhibit smaller total brain volume, pronounced reductions in cortical grey matter, and widespread cortical thinning throughout primary sensory and association cortex in parietal, temporal, and frontal lobes.
“children reared in deprived institutions exhibit smaller total brain volume,(128) pronounced reductions in cortical grey matter(129) and widespread cortical thinning throughout primary sensory and association cortex in the parietal, temporal, and frontal lobes.(130)”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 3 sources checked- cites [128] Sheridan, 2012, Variation in neural development as a result of exposure to institutionalization early in childhood, Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A source
Not checked in the free run.
- cites [129] McLaughlin, 2014, Widespread reductions in cortical thickness following severe early-life deprivation: A neurodevelopmental pathway to ADHD, Biol Psychiatry source
Not checked in the free run.
- cites [130] Bauer, 2009, Cerebellar volume and cognitive functioning in children who experienced early deprivation, Biol Psychiatry source
Not checked in the free run.
Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based).
InterpretationreasoningEarly problems in associative learning may partly explain lasting executive function difficulties.
“Early problems in associative learning may explain, in part, these lasting difficulties with EF, although future research is needed to evaluate this possibility.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimMay combine two claims.
PremisecitationChildren raised in deprived environments exhibit elevations in anxiety, depression, ADHD, aggression, and substance abuse.
“Children raised in deprived environments exhibit elevations in many forms of psychopathology, including anxiety, depression, ADHD, aggression, and substance abuse.(38, 40, 139)”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 3 sources checked- cites [38] Zeanah, 2009, Institutional rearing and psychiatric disorders in Romanian preschool children, Am J Psychiatry source
Not checked in the free run.
- cites [40] Humphreys, 2015, Effects of institutional rearing and foster care on psychopathology at age 12 years in Romania: Follow-up of an open, randomised controlled trial, Lancet Psychiatry source
Not checked in the free run.
- cites [139] Kreppner, 2001, Can inattention/overactivity be an institutional deprivation syndrome?, J Abnorm Child Psychol source
Not checked in the free run.
May combine two claims.
PremisecitationSmaller left amygdala and larger right amygdala volumes were reported in a small study of previously institutionalized children, but these patterns have not been replicated in larger studies.
“Smaller left amygdala volume and larger right amygdala volume were reported in a small study of previously-institutionalized children,(128) but these patterns have not been replicated in larger studies.(33, 129)”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 3 sources checked- cites [128] Sheridan, 2012, Variation in neural development as a result of exposure to institutionalization early in childhood, Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A source
Not checked in the free run.
- cites [33] Tottenham, 2010, Prolonged institutional rearing is associated with atypically larger amygdala volume and difficulties in emotion regulation, Dev Sci source
Not checked in the free run.
- cites [129] McLaughlin, 2014, Widespread reductions in cortical thickness following severe early-life deprivation: A neurodevelopmental pathway to ADHD, Biol Psychiatry source
Not checked in the free run.
May combine two claims.
PremisecitationADHD is strongly associated with institutional rearing and persists after removal from institutional care after age 6 months.
“ADHD is strongly associated with institutional rearing and persists following removal from institutional care after the age of 6 months.(38, 40, 140)”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 3 sources checked- cites [38] Zeanah, 2009, Institutional rearing and psychiatric disorders in Romanian preschool children, Am J Psychiatry source
Not checked in the free run.
- cites [40] Humphreys, 2015, Effects of institutional rearing and foster care on psychopathology at age 12 years in Romania: Follow-up of an open, randomised controlled trial, Lancet Psychiatry source
Not checked in the free run.
- cites [140] McLaughlin, 2010, Delayed maturation in brain electrical activity explains the association between early environmental deprivation and symptoms of attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD), Biol Psychiatry source
Not checked in the free run.
May combine two claims.
PremisecitationWhite matter changes observed in institutionally-reared children include reduced volume of posterior corpus callosum and reduced fractional anisotropy in tracts linking prefrontal cortex with temporal lobe and striatum.
“White matter changes have also been observed, consistent with evidence from animal models, including reduced volume of the posterior corpus callosum(129, 136), and reduced FA in white matter tracts linking the PFC with the temporal lobe (e.g., uncinate fasiculus, superior longitudinal fasciculus) and striatum (e.g., internal and external capsule).(136–138)”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 4 sources checked- cites [129] McLaughlin, 2014, Widespread reductions in cortical thickness following severe early-life deprivation: A neurodevelopmental pathway to ADHD, Biol Psychiatry source
Not checked in the free run.
- cites [136] Govindan, 2010, Altered water diffusivity in cortical association tracts in children with early deprivation identified with tract-based spatial statistics (TBSS), Cereb Cortex source
Not checked in the free run.
- cites [137] Eluvathingal, 2006, Abnormal brain connectivity in children after early severe socioemotional deprivation: A diffusion tensor imaging study, Pediatrics source
Not checked in the free run.
- cites [138] McLaughlin, 2012, Childhood adversities and first onset of psychiatric disorders in a national sample of adolescents, Arch Gen Psychiatry source
Not checked in the free run.
May combine two claims.
PremisecitationAdditional domains improved in children randomized out of institutional care include physical growth, attachment, stress reactivity, and internalizing symptoms.
“Additional domains that improved in children randomized out of institutional care include physical growth, attachment, stress reactivity, and internalizing symptoms.(34, 38, 40, 146)”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 4 sources checked- cites [34] McLaughlin, 2015, Causal effects of the early caregiving environment on stress response system development in children, Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A source
Not checked in the free run.
- cites [38] Zeanah, 2009, Institutional rearing and psychiatric disorders in Romanian preschool children, Am J Psychiatry source
Not checked in the free run.
- cites [40] Humphreys, 2015, Effects of institutional rearing and foster care on psychopathology at age 12 years in Romania: Follow-up of an open, randomised controlled trial, Lancet Psychiatry source
Not checked in the free run.
- cites [146]
Not checked in the free run.
May combine two claims.
PremisecitationIntervention effects have been found for IQ, language development, reward learning, EEG neural function, and white matter volume and integrity.
“intervention effects have been found for IQ, language development, reward learning, neural function assessed with EEG, and white matter volume and integrity;(93, 100, 114, 129, 133, 135, 136)”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 7 sources checked- cites [93] Nelson, 2007, Cognitive recovery in socially deprived young children: The Bucharest Early Intervention Project, Science source
Not checked in the free run.
- cites [100] Goff, 2013, : Reduced nucleus accumbens reactivity and adolescent depression following early-life stress, Neuroscience source
Not checked in the free run.
- cites [114] Rakhlin, 2015, Language development of internationally adopted children: Adverse early experiences outweigh the age of acquisition effect, J Commun Disord source
Not checked in the free run.
- cites [129] McLaughlin, 2014, Widespread reductions in cortical thickness following severe early-life deprivation: A neurodevelopmental pathway to ADHD, Biol Psychiatry source
Not checked in the free run.
- cites [133] Stamoulis, 2015, Early psychosocial neglect adversely impacts developmental trajectories of brain oscillations and their interactions, J Cogn Neurosci source
Not checked in the free run.
- cites [135] Bick, 2015, Effect of early institutionalization and foster care on long-term white matter development: A randomized clinical trial, JAMA Pediatr source
Not checked in the free run.
- cites [136] Govindan, 2010, Altered water diffusivity in cortical association tracts in children with early deprivation identified with tract-based spatial statistics (TBSS), Cereb Cortex source
Not checked in the free run.
Classified as probably not a substantial claim.
PremisecitationIn the Bucharest Early Intervention Project, 136 infants aged 6-30 months were randomly assigned to high-quality foster care or continued institutional care.
“After screening for developmental and neurological issues, 136 infants aged 6–30 months were randomly assigned to a high-quality foster care intervention or to care as usual–continued institutional care.(23)”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites [23] Zeanah, 2003, Designing research to study the effects of institutionalization on brain and behavioral development: The Bucharest Early Intervention Project, Dev Psychopathol source
Not checked in the free run.
May combine two claims.
PremisecitationDepression and externalizing problems are associated with poor reward learning and atypical neural response to reward.
“Both depression and externalizing problems have been associated with poor reward learning and atypical neural response to reward(142, 143)”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 2 sources checked- cites [142] Gatzke-Kopp, 2009, Neurological correlates of reward responding in adolescents with and without externalizing behavior disorders, J Abnorm Psychol source
Not checked in the free run.
- cites [143] Nelson, 2014
Not checked in the free run.
May combine two claims.
InterpretationreasoningDeprivation also leads to lower cortical grey matter volume and thickness, and poorer white matter integrity.
“as well as reductions in cortical grey matter volume and thickness and white matter integrity.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claimMay combine two claims.
Premisenone givenNo intervention effects were found for executive function, ADHD, and cortical thinning, which are impacted by institutionalization but not foster care intervention.
“No intervention effects were found for EF, ADHD, and cortical thinning, which are impacted by institutionalization but not foster care intervention.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
The paper relies on this without support.
Early learning occurs mainly through interactions with a caregiver.
“Early in life, most forms of learning occur in the context of caregiver interactions.”
The paper relies on this without support.
Caregivers regulate exposure to language, social interaction, and sensory and motor stimulation.
“Caregivers regulate exposure to environmental inputs of numerous kinds, including language and auditory stimulation in the form of caregiver vocalizations, social interaction through play, and sensory and motor stimulation through physical contact and the provision of objects for the child to manipulate.”
The paper relies on this without support.
Associative and implicit learning are the foundation for more complex cognition and learning.
“Associative and implicit learning processes are the foundation upon which more complex forms of cognition and learning are built.”
The paper relies on this without support.
Animal models of global deprivation resemble human neglect in relevant ways.
“Animal models of global deprivation resemble neglect in that they reflect an environment characterized by a lack of complexity and an absence of sensory, cognitive, and social stimulation.”
The paper relies on this without support.
Implicit learning depends on a rich sensory environment and observable regularities.
“Implicit learning depends upon a rich sensory environment and observable regularities in the environment.”
The paper relies on this without support.
Children with responsive caregivers learn that signs of distress produce caregiver proximity, soothing, food, or removal of a source of distress.
“Children raised by a responsive caregiver learn that exhibiting signs of distress will produce caregiver proximity, soothing behaviors, food, or removal of a source of distress.”
Claims other papers make about this one
Each is checked against this paper’s own text: does it say what the citing paper says it does?
Synapses between neurons that regularly fire together are strengthened and less likely to undergo neuronal pruning, increasing the likelihood of subsequent coactivation.
“A general principle of neuroscience is that synapses between neurons that regularly fire together are strengthened and less likely to undergo neuronal pruning (Hebb, 1949), increasing the likelihood of subsequent coactivation (also see: McLaughlin et al., 2017).”
From Adolescent cognitive control and mediofrontal theta oscillations are disrupted by neglect: Associations with transdiagnostic risk for psychopathology in a randomized controlled trial (2020) · cites this paper as McLaughlin et al., 2017
Inadequate environmental inputs during critical periods can fundamentally change the dynamics of neurocognitive development, affecting long-term cognitive outcomes.
“Inadequate environmental inputs during critical periods can fundamentally change the dynamics of neurocognitive development (McLaughlin et al., 2017, Nelson and Gabard-Durnam, 2020), affecting long-term cognitive outcomes.”
From Resting brain activity in early childhood predicts IQ at 18 years (2023) · cites this paper as McLaughlin et al., 2017
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Child abuse: Adolescent records vs. adult recall
Femina, D. D., Yeager, C. A., & Lewis, D. O. (1990) · Child Abuse & Neglect · doi:10.1016/0145-2134(90)90033-p · Cited by 8,820 · see citing works
Rescorla, R. A. (1972) · Medical Entomology and Zoology · Cited by 7,268 · see citing works
Effects of stress throughout the lifespan on the brain, behaviour and cognition
Lupien, S. J., McEwen, B. S., Gunnar, M. R., & Heim, C. (2009) · Nature Reviews Neuroscience · doi:10.1038/nrn2639 · Cited by 6,256 · see citing works
Statistical learning by 8-month-old infants
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Self-citationBick, J., Zhu, T., Stamoulis, C., Fox, N. A., Zeanah, C., & Nelson, C. A. (2015) · JAMA Pediatrics · doi:10.1001/jamapediatrics.2014.3212 · Cited by 199 · see citing works
Self-citationHumphreys, K. L., Gleason, M. M., Drury, S. S., Miron, D., Nelson, C. A., Fox, N. A., & Zeanah, C. H. (2015) · The Lancet Psychiatry · doi:10.1016/s2215-0366(15)00095-4 · Cited by 199 · see citing works
Self-citationAlbers, L. H. (1997) · JAMA · doi:10.1001/jama.1997.03550110060037 · Cited by 192 · see citing works
The effects of early neglect on cognitive, language, and behavioral functioning in childhood
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“Poor expressive language and receptive language have been consistently observed in neglected children, who exhibit language difficulties that are more pronounced than those associated with abuse (87,111,112).”
Marshall, P. J., Reeb, B. C., Fox, N. A., Nelson, C. A., & Zeanah, C. H. (2008) · Development and Psychopathology · doi:10.1017/s0954579408000412 · Cited by 175 · see citing works
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McLaughlin, K. A., Zeanah, C. H., Fox, N. A., & Nelson, C. A. (2012) · Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry · doi:10.1111/j.1469-7610.2011.02437.x · Cited by 171 · see citing works
Self-citationA Neurobiological Perspective on Early Human Deprivation
Nelson, C. A. (2007) · Child Development Perspectives · doi:10.1111/j.1750-8606.2007.00004.x · Cited by 168 · see citing works
Self-citationCerebellar volume and cognitive functioning in children who experienced early deprivation
Bauer, P. M., Hanson, J. L., Pierson, R. K., Davidson, R. J., & Pollak, S. D. (2009) · Biological Psychiatry · doi:10.1016/j.biopsych.2009.06.014 · Cited by 167 · see citing works
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Bogdan, R., Williamson, D. E., & Hariri, A. R. (2012) · American Journal of Psychiatry · doi:10.1176/appi.ajp.2011.11060855 · Cited by 165 · see citing works
Fox, N. A., Almas, A. N., Degnan, K. A., Nelson, C. A., & Zeanah, C. H. (2011) · Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry · doi:10.1111/j.1469-7610.2010.02355.x · Cited by 160 · see citing works
Self-citationDefinition and measurement of neglectful behavior: some principles and guidelines
Straus, M. A., & Kantor, G. K. (2005) · Child Abuse & Neglect · doi:10.1016/j.chiabu.2004.08.005 · Cited by 151 · see citing works
Human amygdala development in the absence of species‐expected caregiving
Tottenham, N. (2012) · Developmental Psychobiology · doi:10.1002/dev.20531 · Cited by 149 · see citing works
The effects of child maltreatment on language development
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McLaughlin, K. A., Fox, N. A., Zeanah, C. H., Sheridan, M. A., Marshall, P., & Nelson, C. A. (2010) · Biological Psychiatry · doi:10.1016/j.biopsych.2010.04.005 · Cited by 144 · see citing works
Self-citationNeural plasticity and human development
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Family functioning in neglectful families
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The effect of early deprivation on executive attention in middle childhood
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Self-citationMaltreated children’s language and speech development: Abused, neglected, and abused and neglected
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“Indeed, reductions in cognitive stimulation, provision of learning opportunities, supervision by adults, and parent–child interactions have been observed among children who are neglected (16,18,22).”
Kaplan, P. S., Bachorowski, J.-A., & Zarlengo-Strouse, P. (1999) · Child Development · doi:10.1111/1467-8624.00041 · Cited by 118 · see citing works
Kaplan, P. S., Bachorowski, J.-A., Smoski, M. J., & Hudenko, W. J. (2002) · Psychological Science · doi:10.1111/1467-9280.00449 · Cited by 113 · see citing works
Psychosocial deprivation, executive functions and the emergence of socio-emotional behavior problems
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Self-citationEffect of Foster Care on Young Children’s Language Learning
Windsor, J., Benigno, J. P., Wing, C. A., Carroll, P. J., Koga, S. F., Nelson, C. A., Fox, N. A., & Zeanah, C. H. (2011) · Child Development · doi:10.1111/j.1467-8624.2011.01604.x · Cited by 105 · see citing works
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The effect of unilateral deprivation on visual centers in rats
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Self-citationInfant-directed versus adult-directed speech as signals for faces
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Similarities in siblings’ experiences of neglectful parenting behaviors
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Stamoulis, C., Vanderwert, R. E., Zeanah, C. H., Fox, N. A., & Nelson, C. A. (2015) · Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience · doi:10.1162/jocn_a_00877 · Cited by 39 · see citing works
Self-citationThe role of learning in social development: Illustrations from neglected children
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Childhood Adversity and Neural Development: A Systematic Review
McLaughlin, K. A., Weissman, D., & Bitrán, D. (2019) · Annual Review of Developmental Psychology · doi:10.1146/annurev-devpsych-121318-084950 · Cited by 892 · see citing works
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Self-citationMaj, M., Stein, D. J., Parker, G., Zimmerman, M., Fava, G. A., De Hert, M., Demyttenaere, K., McIntyre, R. S., Widiger, T., & Wittchen, H. (2020) · World Psychiatry · doi:10.1002/wps.20771 · Cited by 435 · see citing works
Brain Plasticity and Human Evolution
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Sheridan, M. A., McLaughlin, K. A., Winter, W., Fox, N., Zeanah, C., & Nelson, C. A. (2018) · Nature Communications · doi:10.1038/s41467-018-04381-8 · Cited by 101 · see citing works
Self-citationThe neglect–enrichment continuum: Characterizing variation in early caregiving environments
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The Contribution of Environmental Enrichment to Phenotypic Variation in Mice and Rats.
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“These types of species may otherwise live cooperatively in a larger group when the social hierarchy is firmly established (McQuaid et al., 2012; for excellent review on groups and non-traditional housing models, see Beery et al., 2020).”
BackgroundBuzzell, G. A., Troller-Renfree, S. V., Wade, M., Debnath, R., Morales, S., Bowers, M. E., Zeanah, C. H., Nelson, C. A., & Fox, N. A. (2020) · Developmental Cognitive Neuroscience · doi:10.1016/j.dcn.2020.100777 · Cited by 30 · see citing works
Self-citationHumphreys, K. L., Guyon-Harris, K. L., Tibu, F., Wade, M., Nelson, C. A., Fox, N. A., & Zeanah, C. H. (2020) · Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology · doi:10.1037/ccp0000613 · Cited by 26 · see citing works
Self-citationResting brain activity in early childhood predicts IQ at 18 years
Tan, E., Tang, A., Debnath, R., Humphreys, K. L., Zeanah, C. H., Nelson, C. A., & Fox, N. A. (2023) · Developmental Cognitive Neuroscience · doi:10.1016/j.dcn.2023.101287 · Cited by 22 · see citing works
Self-citationSlopen, N., Tang, A., Nelson, C. A., Zeanah, C. H., McDade, T. W., McLaughlin, K. A., & Fox, N. A. (2019) · Psychosomatic Medicine · doi:10.1097/psy.0000000000000696 · Cited by 18 · see citing works
Self-citationFan, J., Han, Y., Xia, J., Wang, X., Liu, Q., Liu, Y., Lu, J., Yu, Q., Yang, Y., & Zhu, X. (2023) · Depression and Anxiety · doi:10.1155/2023/2429889 · Cited by 10 · see citing works
“Deprivation is the core feature of neglect [39].”
BackgroundLangevin, R., Kern, A., Esposito, T., & Hélie, S. (2023) · International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health · doi:10.3390/ijerph20054151 · Cited by 10 · see citing works
“Specifically, neglected children are deprived of a sensitive and responsive caregiver, resulting in major reductions in the stimulation received [45].”
BackgroundLurie, L. A., Gruhn, M. A., Garrisi, K., McLaughlin, K. A., Humphreys, K. L., Zeanah, C. H., Fox, N. A., Nelson, C. A., & Sheridan, M. A. (2025) · Developmental Science · doi:10.1111/desc.70043 · Cited by 2 · see citing works
Self-citationKinay Ermis, D., Guney, O., & Kasar, N. (2026) · Dusunen Adam:The Journal of Psychiatry and Neurological Sciences · doi:10.14744/dajpns.2026.00327
- Authors
- McLaughlin, K. A., Sheridan, M. A., & Nelson, C. A.
- Affiliations
- University of Washington (US)
- University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill (US)
- Boston Children's Hospital (US)
- Corresponding author
- McLaughlin, Katie A.
- Venue
- Biological Psychiatry
- Publisher
- Elsevier BV
- Published
- 2017-10
- Volume
- 82
- Issue
- 7
- Pages
- 462-471
- ISSN
- 0006-3223 (ISSN-L)
- PMC
- PMC5572554
- OpenAlex
- W2591582754
- Semantic Scholar
- 92af570a9f76a61c31ba90039ca9c2e6775a0643
- Cited by
- 295
- References
- 154
- Citations by year
- 2026: 20 · 2025: 28 · 2024: 29 · 2023: 39 · 2022: 33 · 2021: 33 · 2020: 63 · 2019: 23 · 2018: 18 · 2017: 8
- FWCI
- 4.70
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- green
- www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov
- Locations
- Biological Psychiatry (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- Europe PMC (PubMed Central) (acceptedVersion)
- PubMed Central (acceptedVersion)
- Carolina Digital Repository (University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill) (submittedVersion)
- UNC Libraries
- Funders
- Jacobs Foundation
- National Institute of Mental Health (MH103291, R01MH091363, R01MH103291, MH091363, R01MH106482)
- Eunice Kennedy Shriver National Institute of Child Health and Human Development (U54HD083091, U54HD090255)
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Clinical Psychology › Child Abuse and Trauma
- Social Sciences › Safety Research › Child Welfare and Adoption
- Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Behavioral Neuroscience › Stress Responses and Cortisol
- Keywords
- child neglect, institutionalized children, brain development, synaptic pruning, myelination, cortical thickness, white matter integrity, cognitive development, associative learning, implicit learning, language development, executive function, psychosocial deprivation, neuroplasticity
- MeSH terms
- Animals, Brain, Child Abuse, Developmental Disabilities, Child, Preschool, Cognition Disorders, Humans, Psychosocial Deprivation, Species Specificity
About these checks
Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.
Claims read by deepseek-v4.1-flash under definition version 3 (extract-v3) on 2026-10-05.
Classified by jev-1.13-20260917 (gold-guideline-v0.2) on 2026-10-05.
Statistics and arithmetic are recomputed, not judged.
Confidence bands are shown only for fields calibrated on our annotated test set. None is calibrated yet, so no band is shown.
What counts as a claim ›How we measure confidence ›How we check this ›
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