The assessment of executive functioning in children

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Many NEPSY II subtests do not yield pure measures of either verbal or visuospatial abilities (Design Fluency and Word Generation excepted).

“More generally, many subtests do not yield pure measures of either verbal or visuospatial abilities (Design Fluency and Word Generation excepted)”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

There is a 'switching' part to NEPSY-II Inhibition (7-16-years), which has good reliability (.73-.90).

“There is also a 'switching' part to this test (7-16-years), which has good reliability (.73-.90).”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

Although the Animal-Stroop is not a standardised test, the authors include comparison data on 155 healthy children in seven age bands.

“although this is not a standardised test, the authors include comparison data on 155 healthy children in seven age bands.”

• cites Wright et al., 2003Not checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

The 'odd one out' task is easy to administer/score, suitable from around 5 years and enjoyable.

“This task is easy to administer/score, suitable from around 5 years and enjoyable”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

No standardised version of the 'odd one out' task is available.

“but no standardised version is available.”

May combine two claims.

Tests are more limited for children under 8 years; two batteries do not cover this age range (D-KEFS, BADS-C) and coverage in a third is patchy (NEPSY II).

“Tests are more limited for children under 8 years; two batteries do not cover this age range (D-KEFS, BADS-C) and coverage in a third is patchy (NEPSY II).”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

The full NEPSY II test is lengthy to administer (2/3 hours) and there are delayed subtests that require careful time management.

“However, the full test is lengthy to administer (2/3 hours) and there are delayed subtests that require careful time management.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

There are fewer measures of executive functioning for children under 7 years in NEPSY II.

“and there are fewer measures of executive functioning for children under 7 years.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).

The NEPSY-II quotes better reliabilities than some of the other batteries.

“The NEPSY-II quotes better reliabilities than some of the other batteries”

May combine two claims.

NEPSY-II Clocks has less face validity than others, but reasonably good test-retest reliabilities (.64-.82).

“This task has less face validity than others, but reasonably good rest-retest reliabilities (.64-.82).”

May combine two claims.

Test-retest reliability for the WCST-64 is reasonably good (.74) for adults (child data not available) and the WCST-64 correlates highly with the full test (.9).

“Test-retest reliability is reasonably good (.74) for adults (child data not available) and the WCST-64 correlates highly with the full test (.9).”

• cites Kongs et al., 2000Not checked yet

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Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based). May combine two claims.

Although WCST test presentation is straightforward, accurate recording is crucial and requires practice.

“Although test presentation is straightforward, accurate recording is crucial and requires practice.”

May combine two claims.

CANTAB Reliability Study was satisfactory (.70 for errors, .63 for strategy use); but data are unavailable for children.

“Figure: ( CANTAB Reliability Study) was satisfactory (.70 for errors, .63 for strategy use); but data are unavailable for children.”

May combine two claims.

The Stop Signal Task is straightforward and easy to administer, but there are no data available on reliability in children or adults, as it is new to the battery.

“The test is straightforward and easy to administer, but there are no data available on reliability in children or adults, as it is new to the battery (see Williams, et al., 1999, for reference norms).”

• cites Williams, et al., 1999Not checked yet

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Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

Maze measures are readily available within working memory or IQ batteries, assess planning in the visuospatial domain and have UK based norms and reasonably good reliabilities (e.g. WMTB-C Mazes task, test-retest reliability .68).

“However, maze measures are readily available within working memory or IQ batteries, assess planning in the visuospatial domain and have UKbased norms and reasonably good reliabilities (e.g.WMTB-C Mazes task, test-retest reliability .68).”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Test-retest reliability for Stockings of Cambridge was moderately good (.64), again based on adult data.

“Test-retest reliability for this test was moderately good (.64), again based on adult data.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

One weakness of the IED shift task is that it can be rather lengthy for younger participants.

“One weakness of this test is that it can be rather lengthy for younger participants.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

The WMTB-C includes a separate measure of backward digit span with moderate to adequate test-retest reliability (.53 to .71), as well as a forward digit span measure.

“The WMTB-C includes a separate measure of backward digit span with moderate to adequate test-retest reliability (.53 to .71), as well as a forward digit span measure.”

• cites Pickering & Gathercole, 2001Not checked yet

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Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

Although test-retest reliabilities for Listening Recall are variable (.83 5-7 years, .38 9-11 years), Listening Recall is easy to administer and score, with clear procedures for continuing testing when threshold span is exceeded.

“Although test-retest reliabilities are variable (.83 5-7 years, .38 9-11 years), Listening Recall is easy to administer and score, with clear procedures for continuing testing when threshold span is exceeded.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

Counting span is easy to administer/score, with moderate to adequate test-retest reliabilities (.48 to .74).

“It is easy to administer/score, with moderate to adequate testretest reliabilities (.48. to 74).”

Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

Miyake et al. argued that three key aspects of adult executive functioning-inhibition, updating and shifting-are separable but moderately correlated constructs.

“Miyake et al. (2000) argued that three key aspects of executive functioning in adults (inhibition, updating and shifting) were 'separable but moderately correlated constructs ' (p. 87).”

• cites Miyake et al., 2000Not checked yet

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Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Pennington and Ozonoff divided executive functioning into discrete sub-skills including planning, working memory/updating, problem-solving, self-monitoring, mental flexibility, generativity/fluency, and inhibition of prepotent responses.

“Pennington and Ozonoff (1996) divided executive functioning into discrete sub-skills that included planning, working memory/updating, problemsolving, self-monitoring, mental flexibility, generativity/fluency, and inhibition of prepotent responses.”

• cites Pennington and Ozonoff, 1996Not checked yet

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Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

Executive control is a prominent component of the multicomponent working memory model and involves focusing, dividing and switching attention.

“Executive control is a prominent part of the influential multicomponent model of working memory (Baddeley & Hitch, 1974;Baddeley, 1986Baddeley, , 2000Baddeley, , 2007) ) and involves focusing, dividing and switching attention.”

• cites Baddeley & Hitch, 1974Not checked yet

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• cites Baddeley, 1986Not checked yet

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• cites Baddeley, 2007Not checked yet

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May combine two claims.

Executive abilities are increasingly viewed as divided into separate subcomponents that are nevertheless loosely related to one another.

“Executive abilities are increasingly regarded as at least partly 'fractionated' or divided (e.g.Lehto, 1996) into separate subcomponents that are, nevertheless, loosely related to each other (Anderson, 2002;Fisk & Sharp, 2004;Garon, Bryson, & Smith, 2008;Huizinga, Dolan, & van der Molen, 2006;Lehto et al., 2003;Miyake et al., 2000).”

• cites Lehto, 1996Not checked yet

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• cites Anderson, 2002Not checked yet

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• cites Miyake et al., 2000Not checked yet

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Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

Executive control is not used for routine automatised tasks but is used for demanding novel tasks.

“Executive control is not used during routine (automatised) tasks (Shallice, 1990), but for demanding tasks that involve novelty.”

• cites Shallice, 1990Not checked yet

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May combine two claims.

Planning and set shifting are impaired in autism.

“For example, planning and set shifting are impaired in autism (Hill, 2004;Liss et al., 2001), whereas inhibition appears to be a primary deficit in attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (Barkley, 1997).”

• cites Hill, 2004Not checked yet

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• cites Liss et al., 2001Not checked yet

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May combine two claims.

D-KEFS verbal fluency includes letter, category, and switching measures; they are quick and straightforward to administer with modest to good internal consistency (.37-.80) and slightly better test-retest reliability (.53-.70).

“Verbal fluency (e.g.Thurstone Word Fluency Test, Thurstone, 1938;Milner, 1964) in the D-KEFS includes letter, category (e.g.generate animal names) and switching (between categories) measures of fluency; they are quick and straightforward to administer with modest to good internal consistency (.37-.80) and slightly better testretest reliability (.53-.70).”

• cites Thurstone, 1938Not checked yet

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• cites Milner, 1964Not checked yet

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May combine two claims.

Executive functions develop slowly from infancy through early childhood and adolescence, and may still improve into young adulthood.

“Executive functions develop slowly from infancy (e.g.Diamond & Goldman-Rakic, 1989) through early childhood and adolescence, and may still improve into young adulthood (e.g.Anderson, 2002;Garon et al., 2008;Levin et al., 1991;Huizinga et al., 2006;Welsh, Pennington, & Groisser, 1991).”

• cites Diamond & Goldman-Rakic, 1989Not checked yet

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• cites Anderson, 2002Not checked yet

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• cites Garon et al., 2008Not checked yet

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May combine two claims.

D-KEFS information on reliability and validity is thorough, with adequate to good test-retest reliabilities and internal consistency coefficients for most measures, with some exceptions (some switching measures).

“Information on reliability and validity is thorough; with adequate to good test-retest reliabilities and internal consistency coefficients for most measures (although the complexity of executive function measures may increase performance variability and measurement error, such that high values cannot be expected, Delis et al., 2004), with some exceptions (some switching measures).”

• cites Delis et al., 2004Not checked yet

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May combine two claims.

D-KEFS Sorting Test internal consistency (.55-.80) and test-retest reliabilities (.49-.67) demonstrate moderate to relatively good reliability.

“Internal consistency values (.55-.80) and test-retest reliabilities (.49-.67) demonstrate moderate to relatively good reliability.”

• cites Delis et al., 2001Not checked yet

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Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

Executive functioning is a key cognitive skill underpinning successful goal-directed behaviour and is linked to educational attainment in English, maths and science.

“Executive functioning is a key cognitive skill underpinning successful goal-directed behaviour, and is linked to educational attainment in English, maths and science (St. Clair-Thompson & Gathercole, 2006).”

• cites St. Clair-Thompson & Gathercole, 2006Not checked yet

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May combine two claims.

Further studies broadly support these conclusions in adults and children, although uncertainties remain about the precise nature and specification of executive abilities.

“Further studies have broadly supported these conclusions in adults and children (Anderson, 2002;Fisk & Sharp, 2004;Garon et al., 2008;Lehto et al., 2003), although there are still uncertainties regarding the precise nature and specification of executive abilities.”

• cites Anderson, 2002Not checked yet

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• cites Fisk & Sharp, 2004Not checked yet

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• cites Garon et al., 2008Not checked yet

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May combine two claims.

The D-KEFS is a comprehensive test of executive functioning for children from 8 years, with the Proverbs Test suitable only for adults, and is reasonably straightforward to administer.

“The D-KEFS is a comprehensive test of executive functioning in children from 8 years (Proverbs Test suitable only for adults), which is reasonably straightforward to administer.”

• cites Delis, Kaplan, & Kramer, 2001Not checked yet

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May combine two claims.

There is mounting evidence that many children with developmental disorders have particular profiles of executive impairment, which may help practitioners develop treatment programmes.

“There is mounting evidence that many children with developmental disorders have particular profiles of executive impairment, which may help practitioners develop treatment programmes.”

• cites Hill, 2004Not checked yet

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• cites Barkley, 1997Not checked yet

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May combine two claims.

Correlations between different measures of executive functioning are not expected to be high because these measures are believed to be only loosely related.

“Note that we would not expect correlations to be high between different measures of executive functioning; as these measures are believed to be only loosely related (e.g.Miyake et al., 2000).”

• cites Miyake et al., 2000Not checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

May combine two claims.

The D-KEFS Twenty Questions test has a test-retest reliability value for overall achievement that is virtually zero (.06), so caution should be exercised in interpreting this test.

“One such standardised measure is available in the D-KEFS, but the test-retest reliability value for 'overall achievement' on the test is virtually zero (.06) so caution should be exercised in interpreting this test (although the 'initial abstraction score' test-retest reliability coefficient was higher, .62).”

• cites Delis et al., 2001Not checked yet

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Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

Of the nine D-KEFS subtests, seven are based on traditional executive functioning measures, which the authors argue add to its validity.

“Of the nine subtests, seven are based on traditional executive functioning measures, which the authors argue add to its validity.”

• cites Delis et al., 2001Not checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

May combine two claims.

The D-KEFS Sorting Test is one of the few planning tasks with a verbal element, yielding measures of organisational skill in verbal and visuospatial domains.

“The Sorting Test from the D-KEFS is one of the few planning tasks available that includes a verbal element, yielding measures of organisational skill in verbal and visuospatial domains.”

• cites Delis et al., 2001Not checked yet

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Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

The D-KEFS Design Fluency task is more constrained than previous measures because the sets of dots provide a structure for drawings, and it includes a switching condition between filled and empty dots.

“This task is more constrained than previous measures, because the sets of dots provide a structure for drawings; a switching condition is also included (between filled and empty dots).”

• cites Delis et al., 2001Not checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

The CANTAB is a computerised assessment covering executive functioning, working memory and planning.

“The Cambridge Neuropsychological Test Automated Battery (CANTAB) (Cambridge Cognition Ltd, 2006a).This computerised assessment covers executive functioning, working memory and planning.”

• cites Cambridge Cognition Ltd, 2006aNot checked yet

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Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Together with verbal fluency, the D-KEFS provides assessments of fluency/switching within both verbal and visuospatial domains.

“Together with verbal fluency, the D-KEFS provides assessments of fluency/switching within both verbal and visuospatial domains.”

• cites Delis et al., 2001Not checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

May combine two claims.

D-KEFS Design Fluency internal consistency data are not available, but test-retest reliability was moderate in the child sample (.43-.66).

“Internal consistency data are not available, but test-retest reliability was moderate in the child sample (.43-.66).”

• cites Delis et al., 2001Not checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

Tower tests are commonly used measures of problem-solving, developed to minimise the contributions of perceptual and motor abilities, short-term memory and sustained attention.

“Tower tests (e.g.Tower of London, Tower of Hanoi) are commonly used measures of problem-solving, developed to minimise the contributions of perceptual and motor abilities, short-term memory and sustained attention.”

• cites Delis et al., 2001Not checked yet

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May combine two claims.

D-KEFS Trail Making has moderate to good internal consistency (.57-.79) but variable test-retest reliability (.20-.82), with the lowest figure representing switching.

“Moderate to good internal consistency (.57-.79) contrasts with rather variable test-retest reliability (.20-.82) across the five conditions but, unfortunately, the lowest figure represents the measure of greatest interest, switching.”

• cites Delis et al., 2001Not checked yet

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May combine two claims.

The D-KEFS includes good controls for component skills in several tasks, good information on reliability and validity, and many separate scores for verbal and perceptual domains.

“It includes good controls for component skills in several tasks, good information on reliability and validity; and many instances of separate scores for verbal and perceptual domains.”

• cites Delis et al., 2001Not checked yet

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May combine two claims.

The D-KEFS Stroop version has good control conditions to vary out relevant component skills (colour naming speed, word reading speed), so it is suitable for individuals in whom speed of word naming and reading may be compromised.

“The D-KEFS version has good control conditions to vary out relevant component skills (colour naming speed, word reading speed), so would be suitable for individuals in whom speed of word naming and reading may be compromised.”

• cites Delis et al., 2001Not checked yet

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May combine two claims.

The D-KEFS Trail Making version includes control conditions (speed of visual scanning, number sequencing, letter sequencing, motor speed), making it suitable for individuals with motor difficulties.

“The D-KEFS version includes impressive control conditions (speed of visual scanning, number sequencing; letter sequencing; motor speed), making it suitable for individuals who have motor difficulties.”

• cites Delis et al., 2001Not checked yet

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May combine two claims.

Many D-KEFS measures are divisible into verbal and visuospatial domains, either through parallel analogous tests or separate measurement, which is useful for evaluating individuals with suspected differences between verbal and visuospatial abilities.

“Many measures are clearly divisible into verbal and visual spatial domains, either because there are parallel analogous tests, or because these aspects are measured separately.This is useful for evaluating individuals in whom there are suspected differences between verbal and visuospatial abilities.”

• cites Delis et al., 2001Not checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

Category and letter fluency have been linked to different brain areas, implying different mechanisms may underlie performance.

“Note that category and letter fluency have been linked to different brain areas (Martin et al., 1994;Schwartz et al., 2003), implying that different mechanisms may underlie performance.”

• cites Martin et al., 1994Not checked yet

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• cites Schwartz et al., 2003Not checked yet

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Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

D-KEFS standardisation involved 1750 nationally representative American children (75 to 100 at each age level 8-15 years) and adults.

“Standardisation involved 1750 nationally representative American children (75 to 100 at each age level 8-15 years) and adults.”

• cites Delis et al., 2001Not checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

The D-KEFS includes an adapted version of the Design Fluency Test, which requires participants to invent different nonsense drawings by connecting sets of identically placed dots differently each time using four lines.

“Gotman and Milner (1977) developed a Design Fluency Test, requiring participants to invent different 'nonsense' drawings; the D-KEFS includes an adapted version of this test.Sets of identically placed dots must be connected, differently each time using four-lines, to produce different diagrams (like the same mini 'dot to dot' puzzle, without the numbers, completed over and over again).”

• cites Jones-Gotman and Milner, 1977Not checked yet

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May combine two claims.

The Trail Making Test is a measure of set shifting/switching and also assesses aspects of speed of visual search, attention, and visuo-motor function.

“The Trail Making Test (Reitan & Wolfson, 1992), a measure of set shifting/switching, also assesses aspects of speed of visual search, attention, and visuo-motor function.”

• cites Reitan & Wolfson, 1992Not checked yet

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May combine two claims.

CANTAB normative data are available from 4 years, so it is suitable for young children.

“Normative data are available from 4 years, so this test is suitable for young children.”

• cites Cambridge Cognition Ltd, 2006aNot checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

May combine two claims.

D-KEFS Stroop internal consistency is moderate to reasonably high (.62-.79), with good to high test-retest reliabilities for children and adolescents (.77-.90).

“Internal consistency is moderate to reasonably high (.62-.79), with good to high test-retest reliabilities for children and adolescents (.77-.90).”

• cites Delis et al., 2001Not checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

May combine two claims.

The D-KEFS Tower Test has modest to good internal consistency (.43-.84) and moderate test-retest reliability (.51).

“A standardised Tower Test is available in the D-KEFS, with modest to good internal consistency (based on correlating two 'half' tests, .43-.84) and moderate test-retest reliability (.51).”

• cites Delis et al., 2001Not checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

TEA-Ch age-scaled scores and percentiles are available for boys and girls across 6 age bands (6-16 years).

“Age-scaled scores and percentiles are available for boys and girls across 6 age bands (6-16 years).”

• cites Manly et al., 1999Not checked yet

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May combine two claims.

Construct and discriminant validity of the CANTAB in child populations has been demonstrated in research studies using clinical and non-clinical samples for over 15 years, although questions have arisen about the Stockings test's ability to discriminate levels of ability in high functioning individuals with autism over age 12.

“Construct and discriminant validity of the CANTAB in child populations has been demonstrated in a range of research studies using clinical and non-clinical samples for over 15 years (e.g.Curtis, Lindeke, & Georgieff, 2002;Hughes, Plumet, & Leboyer, 1999;Luciana, 2003;Luciana & Nelson, 1998), although questions have arisen as to the ability of the Stockings test (similar to Tower tests described”

• cites Curtis et al., 2002Not checked yet

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• cites Luciana, 2003Not checked yet

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• cites Ozonoff et al., 2004Not checked yet

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Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

The BADS-C's key feature is its claim to measure executive functioning in an ecologically valid manner.

“The key feature of this battery is its claim to measure executive functioning in an ecologically valid manner.”

• cites Emslie et al., 2003Not checked yet

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Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

The CANTAB testing format is suitable for children and adults if comparisons are needed, and administration can be carried out by a trained assistant.

“The testing format is suitable for children and adults if such comparisons are needed, and administration can be carried out by a trained assistant.”

• cites Cambridge Cognition Ltd, 2006aNot checked yet

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May combine two claims.

The BADS-C Zoo Map Test and Six Part Test require a complex combination of verbal and visuospatial skills, so they cannot be classified by processing domain.

“Although there are two further planning tests in the BADS-C (the Zoo Map Test involves planning a route to visit six out of 12 locations in the zoo in accordance with a set of rules and the Six Part Test requires planning, task-scheduling and performance monitoring), both require a complex combination of verbal and visuospatial skills so cannot be classified by processing domain.”

• cites Emslie et al., 2003Not checked yet

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May combine two claims.

Most BADS-C measures load more heavily on non-verbal abilities, which may be an advantage when testing certain populations, although if verbal difficulties are suspected, this battery would be best used in combination with other verbal executive measures.

“Most BADS-C measures load more heavily on non-verbal abilities, which may be an advantage when testing certain populations, although if verbal difficulties are suspected, this battery would be best used in combination with other verbal executive measures.”

• cites Emslie et al., 2003Not checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

May combine two claims.

BADS-C set shifting/switching is measured using the Playing Cards Test, which requires the child to respond according to one rule and then change strategy in accordance with a new rule, but its test-retest reliability was extremely poor (-.24).

“Set shifting/switching is measured using the Playing Cards Test, which requires the child to respond according to one rule and then change strategy in accordance with a new rule, but its test-retest reliability was extremely poor (-.24).”

• cites Emslie et al., 2003Not checked yet

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May combine two claims.

Information on BADS-C validity is limited, but the test manual notes low to minimal correlations between the BADS-C subtests and other measures of executive function (e.g., TEA-Ch).

“Information on validity is limited, but the test manual notes low to minimal correlations between the BADS-C subtests and other measures of executive function (e.g.TEA-Ch).”

• cites Emslie et al., 2003Not checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

May combine two claims.

The ecological validity of the BADS-C is an advantage for clinicians wanting to examine everyday difficulties in executive functioning, although it is difficult to separate verbal and visuospatial skills in many tests.

“The ecological validity of the BADS-C is an advantage for clinicians wanting to examine everyday difficulties in executive functioning, although it is difficult to separate verbal and visuospatial skills in many tests.”

• cites Emslie et al., 2003Not checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

May combine two claims.

Not all TEA-Ch subtests are scored in the same way and baseline measures of speed and accuracy are not recorded (unlike D-KEFS), which may be problematic in interpretation of scores.

“Not all subtests are scored in the same way and baseline measures of speed and accuracy are not recorded (unlike D-KEFS), which may be problematic in interpretation of scores (Wilding, 2005).”

• cites Wilding, 2005Not checked yet

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May combine two claims.

CANTAB reliability data are not available for children, but internal consistency coefficients were reported as high (.73-.95) in a sample of 4 to 12-year-old children.

“Reliability data are not available for children, but internal consistency coefficients were reported as high (.73-.95) in a sample of 4 to 12-year-old children (Luciana, 2003).”

• cites Luciana, 2003Not checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

May combine two claims.

Of the 23 CANTAB tests, most (21) are nonverbal in both presentation and response, making it valuable for participants with limited verbal abilities and potentially more culture-free than other tests.

“Of the 23 tests in the CANTAB, most (21) are nonverbal both in terms of test presentation and participant response, so it is valuable for participants with limited verbal abilities and may be more 'culturefree' than other tests.”

• cites Cambridge Cognition Ltd, 2006aNot checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

Thinking ahead in both the Water and Key tasks is essential, so they should reflect planning.

“Thinking ahead in both tasks is essential, hence they should reflect planning.”

• cites Emslie et al., 2003Not checked yet

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Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

BADS-C test-retest reliabilities are highly variable, which the authors argue reflects the need to provide novel tasks assessing EF, but some variability could be accounted for by the small sample size (25).

“Test-retest reliabilities are highly variable, which the authors argue is a reflection of the need to provide novel tasks assessing EF, but some variability could be accounted for by the small sample size (25).”

• cites Emslie et al., 2003Not checked yet

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Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

Luciana outlines potential weaknesses of the CANTAB: it is very expensive; certain populations may perform differently in computerised versus standard assessments; the purity of tasks and assessment format may reduce ecological validity; and the emphasis on nonverbal presentation/response means clinicians cannot comment on comparable verbal measures.

“Although the CANTAB has many strengths and is attractive for children, Luciana (2003) outlines some potential weaknesses: it is very expensive to purchase; certain populations may perform differently in computerised versus standard assessments (e.g.children with autism may perform better with computerised tests); the purity of the tasks and assessment format may reduce their ecological validity;”

• cites Luciana, 2003Not checked yet

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Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

The BADS-C is suitable for children and young people of 8-16 years.

“It is suitable for children and young people of 8-16 years.”

• cites Emslie et al., 2003Not checked yet

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May combine two claims.

BADS-C Water Test test-retest reliability is unavailable because all children reached ceiling on the second testing; for the Key Search Test, test-retest reliability was good (.81), albeit on a small sample (25).

“Test-retest reliability is unavailable for the Water Test as all children reached ceiling on the second testing; for the Key Search Test, test-retest reliability was good (.81), albeit on a small sample (25).”

• cites Emslie et al., 2003Not checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

The BADS-C Key Test looks at how well children can plan an efficient and systematic search of a field in which they have lost their keys.

“The Key Test looks at how well children can plan an efficient and systematic search of a 'field' in which they have lost their keys.”

• cites Emslie et al., 2003Not checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

May combine two claims.

TEA-Ch Walk Don't Walk has reasonably good test-retest reliability (.73) and is modestly related to Trails B (r=.3) and Matching Familiar Figures Test (r=.20), providing evidence for its validity.

“This task has reasonably good test-retest reliability (.73), as well as being modestly related to two other measures of executive function (Trails B r=.3;Matching Familiar Figures Test,r=.20),providing evidence for its validity (Manly et al., 2001).”

• cites Manly et al., 2001Not checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

May combine two claims.

TEA-Ch Opposite Worlds has excellent test-retest reliability (.92); evidence for validity comes from modest correlations with the Stroop test (.24) and the Matching Familiar Figures Test (.25).

“Testretest reliability is excellent (.92); evidence for validity comes from modest correlations with the Stroop test (.24) and the Matching Familiar Figures Test (.25) (Manly et al., 2001).”

• cites Manly et al., 2001Not checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

May combine two claims.

TEA-Ch convergent validity indicates promising relationships between other measures of executive function and TEA-Ch subtests; discriminant validity evidence was provided as correlations were not present with IQ; and boys with ADHD performed poorly on the TEA-Ch, as would be expected.

“Assessment of convergent validity indicates promising relationships between other measures of executive function and TEA-Ch subtests (see below); evidence for discriminant validity was provided as correlations were not present with IQ; and boys with ADHD performed poorly on the TEA-Ch, as would be expected.”

• cites Manly et al., 2001Not checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

The TEA-Ch was developed primarily as a measure of attention, minimising the contributions of memory, reasoning, task comprehension, motor speed, verbal ability and perceptual acuity.

“The Test of Everyday Attention for Children (TEA-Ch, Manly et al., 1999).This battery was developed primarily as a measure of attention, minimising the contributions of memory, reasoning, task comprehension, motor speed, verbal ability and perceptual acuity (Manly et al., 2001).”

• cites Manly et al., 1999Not checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

• cites Manly et al., 2001Not checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

The BADS-C includes the Dysexecutive Questionnaire for Children (DEX-C), a 20-item measure of the types of problems commonly associated with dysexecutive syndrome.

“The battery includes the Dysexecutive Questionnaire for Children (DEX-C), a 20-item measure of the types of problems commonly associated with dysexecutive syndrome.”

• cites Emslie et al., 2003Not checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

May combine two claims.

TEA-Ch Creature Counting has reasonably good test-retest reliability (.69 accuracy, .73 timing) and evidence for validity from modest positive correlations with the Stroop task (.31), Trails B (.21) and the Matching Familiar Figures Test (.35).

“Creature Counting has reasonably good testretest reliability (.69 accuracy, .73timing) and evidence for validity is provided by modest but positive correlations with the Stroop task (.31), Trails B (.21) and the Matching Familiar Figures Test (.35) (Manly et al., 2001).”

• cites Manly et al., 2001Not checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

May combine two claims.

TEA-Ch Sky Search Dual Task convergent validity was weak (scores were not related to the Stroop Test or the Trail Making Test), but test-retest reliability was good (.81).

“Although convergent validity for this task was weak (scores were not related to the Stroop Test or the Trail Making Test), test-retest reliability was good (.81, Manly et al., 2001).”

• cites Manly et al., 2001Not checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

May combine two claims.

Lack of research makes the BADS-C Water and Key tests hard to compare with similar measures, but they are appealing to children and do appear to assess the visuospatial domain.

“Lack of research makes these tests hard to compare with similar measures, but they are appealing to children and do appear to assess the visuospatial domain.”

• cites Emslie et al., 2003Not checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

CANTAB test presentation via touch screen may be advantageous for certain clinical groups (e.g., autism), and all responses are recorded and analysed automatically.

“Test presentation is via a touch screen computer, which may be advantageous for certain clinical groups (e.g.those with autism, Luciana, 2003) and all responses are recorded and analysed automatically.”

• cites Luciana, 2003Not checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

May combine two claims.

BADS-C normative data include 265 healthy UK children nationally representative of ability and socio-economic group, plus 114 children with developmental/neurological disorders, supplemented with a small sample (22) of healthy 7-year-olds in 2006.

“Normative data (265 healthy UK children, nationally representative of ability and socio-economic group, plus 114 children with developmental/neurological disorders) were supplemented with a small sample (22) of healthy 7-year-olds in 2006.”

• cites Emslie et al., 2003Not checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

The TEA-Ch Sky Search Dual Task measures dual task interference by having children carry out a visual search while silently counting auditory tones, with scores reflecting the decrement produced by carrying out the two tasks simultaneously.

“In the Sky Search Dual Task, children carry out a relatively realistic and interesting visual search task (searching for identical pairs of spacecraft on a large laminated sheet containing over 120 pairs of spacecraft, most of which are not identical pairs), while silently counting identical auditory tones over 10 trials, and relaying the total counts on each trial.Scores reflect the decrement”

• cites Manly et al., 1999Not checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

May combine two claims.

TEA-Ch subtests have been used in many research studies, although there have been reports of children with developmental disorders finding some subtests unpalatable (Walk Don't Walk subtest).

“TEA-Ch subtests have been used in many research studies, although there have been reports of children with developmental disorders finding some subtests unpalatable (Bishop & Norbury, 2005b, Walk Don't Walk subtest).”

• cites Bishop & Norbury, 2005bNot checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

BADS-C planning is measured using several tests (Water, Key, Zoo Map, Six Part).

“Planning is measured using several tests (Water, Key, Zoo Map, Six Part).”

• cites Emslie et al., 2003Not checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

May combine two claims.

Manly et al. report normative data on 293 healthy UK children and reasonable test-retest reliability in a random subgroup of 55 children (range .65-.85).

“Manly et al. (2001) report normative data on 293 healthy UK children, and reasonable test-retest reliability in a random subgroup of 55 children (range .65-.85).”

• cites Manly et al., 2001Not checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

The BADS-C Water Test is argued to be an ecologically valid test of planning, requiring children to remove a cork from a tube using an array of physical objects and materials, with five correct interim steps needed to succeed.

“The Water Test is argued to be an 'ecologically valid' test of planning, requiring children to remove a cork from a tube using an array of physical objects and materials (water, plastic tube, screw top, cork); five correct interim steps are needed to succeed.”

• cites Emslie et al., 2003Not checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

May combine two claims.

Stinnet et al. (2002) and Ahmad and Warriner (2001) both provide critiques of the NEPSY.

“Stinnet et al. (2002) and Ahmad and Warriner (2001) both provide critiques of the NEPSY.”

• cites Stinnet et al. (2002)Not checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

• cites Ahmad and Warriner (2001)Not checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

NEPSY-II Design Fluency is similar to the D-KEFS measure, but is slightly simpler and covers a lower age range (5-12 years).

“Design Fluency is similar to the D-KEFS measure (see earlier), but is slightly simpler and covers a lower age range (5-12 years).”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

The measure of interest in the WCST is success in switching from one matching dimension to another; poor executive skills result in perseveration.

“The measure of interest is success in switching from one matching dimension to another; poor executive skills result in perseveration.”

May combine two claims.

The Animal-Stroop (Wright et al., 2003) is an engaging measure developed for children 3-16 years.

“An engaging measure is the Animal-Stroop (Wright et al., 2003), developed for children 3-16 years.”

• cites Wright et al., 2003Not checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

May combine two claims.

The CANTAB covers three executive areas, but only in the nonverbal domain.

“The CANTAB covers three executive areas, but only in the nonverbal domain”

May combine two claims.

Research using the original NEPSY to assess clinical groups indicated that, whilst the battery had clinical validity, findings were somewhat mixed.

“Research using the original NEPSY to assess clinical groups (e.g.Riddle et al., 2005, with spina bifida;and Schmitt & Wodrich, 2004, with mixed neurological impairments) indicated that, whilst the battery had clinical validity, findings were somewhat mixed.”

• cites Riddle et al., 2005Not checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

• cites Schmitt & Wodrich, 2004Not checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

WCST cards contain different representations of shape, colour and numerosity and are matched to one of four 'base' cards that vary along the same dimensions.

“Cards contain different representations of shape, colour and numerosity and are matched to one of four 'base' cards that vary along the same dimensions (e.g. one red triangle, two green stars, three yellow crosses, four blue circles).”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

The NEPSY II scoring software computes scaled scores and percentiles ranks by age and 'Behavioural Observations' supplement some subtests to provide helpful additional data.

“The scoring software computes scaled scores and percentiles ranks by age and 'Behavioural Observations' supplement some subtests to provide helpful additional data.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

NEPSY-II Word Generation includes category and letter fluency, like the D-KEFS.

“It includes category and letter fluency, like the D-KEFS”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based). May combine two claims.

The TEA-Ch is perhaps the most consistently reliable test, but it provides mainly measures of inhibition.

“Perhaps the most consistently reliable test is the TEA-Ch, but it is provides mainly measures of inhibition.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).

NEPSY-II Animal Sorting is similar to the D-KEFS sorting task.

“NEPSY-II Animal Sorting is similar to the D-KEFS sorting task.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S3 (load-bearing).

With the developments and improvements claimed for the NEPSY II, more research is required.

“Clearly, with the developments and improvements claimed for the NEPSY II, more research is required.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

NEPSY-II Inhibition (ages 5-16) requires naming of squares as circles and circles as squares (or up arrows as down arrows etc), combining verbal and visuospatial skills.

“Inhibition (ages 5-16) requires naming of squares as circles and circles as squares (or up arrows as down arrows etc), combining verbal and visuospatial skills”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

The Animal-Stroop stimuli include black-and-white cartoon style images (cow, pig, sheep, duck).

“Stimuli include black-and-white cartoon style images (cow, pig, sheep, duck).”

• cites Wright et al., 2003Not checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Verbal fluency can be assessed in 5-16 year-olds using the NEPSY-II Word Generation subtest.

“Verbal fluency can be assessed in 5-16 year-olds using the NEPSY-II Word Generation subtest.”

May combine two claims.

NEPSY II test-retest reliabilities were derived from a group of 165 children tested after 3 weeks and ranged from modest (.35) to very good (.94).

“Test-retest reliabilities were derived from a group of 165 children tested after 3 weeks and ranged from modest (.35) to very good (.94).”

• cites Korkman, Kirk & Kemp, 2007Not checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

The WCST requires the matching of cards with very little instruction.

“requires the matching of cards with very little instruction.”

May combine two claims.

NEPSY-II Animal Sorting can be regarded as a measure of planning, suitable for children 7-16 years.

“This can, therefore, be regarded as a measure of planning, suitable for children 7-16 years.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

The NEPSY-II Auditory Attention and Response Set test loosely resembles a Stroop task, hence is more verbal than visuospatial.

“The test loosely resembles a Stroop task, hence is more verbal than visuospatial (stimulus items are verbal, but responses are via pointing).”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable).

A combination of batteries and stand-alone tests may offer maximum clinical flexibility.

“a combination of batteries and stand-alone tests may offer maximum clinical flexibility”

• Also stated in: § Interpreting tests of executive functioning · hedged

  “At present, to assess executive functioning thoroughly, a combination of tests will be necessary, possibly including both a test battery and some of the 'other' measures of executive functioning outlined earlier.”

• AssumptionRests on an assumption: Thorough assessment of executive functioning requires covering all five areas and comparing verbal and visuospatial domains.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

NEPSY-II Animal Sorting has no explicitly verbal sorts (e.g. no word sorts).

“there are no explicitly verbal sorts (e.g.no word sorts).”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

NEPSY-II Auditory Attention and Response Set includes a standardised assessment of inhibition in 7-16-year-olds, although only using the 'response set' part of the task.

“Auditory Attention and Response Set includes a standardised assessment of inhibition in 7-16-year-olds, although only using the 'response set' part of the task.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

NEPSY-II Inhibition has the facility to record behavioural observations such as uncorrected versus self-corrected errors, which may give an indication of subtle deficits not available in other batteries.

“but there is the facility to record behavioural observations such as uncorrected versus self-corrected errors, which may give an indication of subtle deficits not available in other batteries.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

NEPSY-II Statue (3-6 years) requires the child to remain motionless in a proscribed standing position despite distractions (e.g. a cough from the tester).

“Statue (3-6 years), which requires the child to remain motionless in a proscribed standing position despite distractions (e.g. a cough from the tester)”

May combine two claims.

The BRIEF assesses EF in the home and school environments (5-to 18-year-olds) using parent and teacher questionnaires.

“the BRIEF (Behavior Rating Inventory of Executive Function, Gioia et al., 2000), which assesses EF in the home and school environments (5-to 18-year-olds) using parent and teacher questionnaires”

• cites Gioia et al., 2000Not checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable).

It may be necessary to accept lower levels of reliability among these tests than is ideal.

“Therefore, it may be necessary to accept lower levels of reliability among these tests than is ideal.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

The advantage of NEPSY II is its breadth, useful for examining a range of abilities including executive functioning.

“The advantage of NEPSY II is its breadth, useful for examining a range of abilities including executive functioning.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Not all NEPSY II subtests cover the full age range.

“However, not all subtests cover the full age range.”

• cites Korkman, Kirk & Kemp, 2007Not checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).

Stroop-like interference in the Animal-Stroop is caused by the preferential processing of facial information, which must be inhibited.

“Stroop-like interference is caused by the preferential processing of facial information, which must be inhibited.”

May combine two claims.

The Animal-Stroop has a wide age range, but combines visuospatial and verbal skills, making domain specific comparisons difficult.

“This test has a wide age range, but combines visuospatial and verbal skills, making domain specific comparisons difficult.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

In NEPSY-II Animal Sorting, the child is not asked to articulate their sorting strategy.

“the child is not asked to articulate their sorting strategy”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

NEPSY-II Statue is a measure of 'motor persistence' and inhibition.

“is a measure of 'motor persistence' and inhibition.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based). May combine two claims.

The BADS-C offers the clinician ecological validity for assessing planning (plus one test of set shifting).

“The BADS-C offers the clinician ecological validity for assessing planning (plus one test of set shifting)”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

NEPSY-II Clocks (7-16 years) tests planning and organisation, assessing a child's ability to tell the time both from traditional and digital clock faces, and to draw clock faces accurately.

“Clocks (7-16 years) tests planning and organisation, assessing a child's ability to tell the time both from traditional and digital clock faces, and to draw clock faces accurately.”

May combine two claims.

Whilst the NEPSY-II is reasonably comprehensive on first sight, many individual subtests have restrictive age ranges.

“whilst it is reasonably comprehensive on first sight, many individual subtests have restrictive age ranges.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based).

Many of the reliabilities of the BADS-C are perhaps worryingly low, even taking into account the point made above regarding reliabilities.

“yet many of the reliabilities are perhaps worryingly low, even taking into account the point made above regarding reliabilities.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

In the congruent condition of the Animal-Stroop, animal images appear as normal and children name the body of the animal.

“In the congruent condition, animal images appear as normal and children name the body of the animal.”

• cites Wright et al., 2003Not checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

In the WCST, feedback is given as to whether each match is correct, and matching dimensions change throughout the task.

“Feedback is given as to whether each match is correct, and matching dimensions change throughout the task.”

May combine two claims.

Although there were significant correlations between five of the six BADS-C subtests and the DEX-C within a typical sample, correlations between subtests and other executive measures such as the TEA-Ch in clinical sample were largely non-significant or low.

“Although there were significant correlations between five of the six BADS-C subtests and the DEX-C within a typical sample, correlations between subtests and other executive measures such as the TEA-Ch in clinical sample were largely non-significant or low.”

• cites Emslie et al., 2003Not checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

In the incongruent condition of the Animal-Stroop, animal heads and bodies are jumbled up, but children still name the body of the animal.

“In the incongruent condition, animal heads and bodies are jumbled up, but children still name the body of the animal.”

• cites Wright et al., 2003Not checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

NEPSY II was standardised using 1200 healthy, representative US children (3-16 years) in 12 age bands, and assesses a wide range of functions (attention and executive functioning, language, social perception, visuospatial processing, memory and learning, sensorimotor).

“Standardised using 1200 healthy, representative US children (3-16 years) in 12 age bands, NEPSY II assesses a wide range of functions (attention and executive functioning, language, social perception, visuospatial processing, memory and learning, sensorimotor).”

• cites Korkman, Kirk & Kemp, 2007Not checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

NEPSY-II Statue is the only executive measure suitable for younger children, but is not a typical measure of inhibition.

“This is the only executive measure suitable for younger children, but is not a typical measure of inhibition.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

The NEPSY II is a revision and extension of the original battery, designed for neuropsychological testing of children.

“The NEPSY II (Korkman, Kirk & Kemp, 2007).This is a revision and extension of the original battery (Korkman, Kirk, & Kemp, 1998), designed for neuropsychological testing of children.”

• cites Korkman, Kirk & Kemp, 2007Not checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

• cites Korkman, Kirk, & Kemp, 1998Not checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

In the 'odd one out' task, three similar visual items are displayed in a left to right array.

“In the 'odd one out' task (Henry, 2001;Hitch & MacAuley, 1991;Russell, Jarrold, & Henry, 1996), three similar (and not readily named) visual items are displayed in a left to right array.”

• cites Henry, 2001Not checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

• cites Hitch & MacAuley, 1991Not checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

• cites Russell, Jarrold, & Henry, 1996Not checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

The WCST-64 (Kongs et al., 2000) is suitable for individuals from 6-89 years and includes half the original cards.

“The WCST-64 (Kongs et al., 2000), suitable for individuals from 6-89 years, includes half the original cards.”

• cites Kongs et al., 2000Not checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).

Scoring difficulties among individuals with intellectual disabilities or developmental disorders can result from performance being confounded with fine motor skills, visual perception and speed of response (many maze tasks are timed).

“Scoring difficulties among individuals with intellectual disabilities or developmental disorders can result from performance being confounded with fine motor skills, visual perception and speed of response (many maze tasks are timed).”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

In maze tasks, the child makes a line along a maze route without encountering 'dead ends' or going outside lines, requiring forward planning to avoid poor decision-making.

“the child makes a line along a maze route without encountering 'dead ends' or going outside lines, requiring forward planning to avoid poor decision-making.”

• cites Anderson, 1998Not checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based). May combine two claims.

Stockings of Cambridge is the CANTAB version of a 'Tower Test', suitable for children who prefer computer-based presentation.

“Finally, Stockings of Cambridge is the CANTAB version of a 'Tower Test', suitable for children who prefer computer-based presentation.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

The WMTB-C also includes counting span, which requires visuospatial and verbal skills (counting dots on a series of cards and recalling the totals).

“The WMTB-C also includes counting span, which requires visuospatial and verbal skills (counting dots on a series of cards and recalling the totals).”

• cites Pickering & Gathercole, 2001Not checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based). May combine two claims.

An excellent example of an easy to administer switching measure that is clearly in the visuospatial domain is the Intra-Extra Dimensional (IED) shift task, one of the only measures of nonverbal switching currently available.

“An excellent example of an easy to administer switching measure that is clearly in the visuospatial domain is the Intra-Extra Dimensional (IED) shift task, one of the only measures of nonverbal switching currently available.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

The Stop Signal Task assesses inhibition.

“The Stop Signal Task assesses inhibition”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

Backward digit span is often regarded as a measure of executive-loaded working memory, is included in standard cognitive assessments, but rarely scored separately from forward digit span.

“Backward digit span, often regarded as a measure of executive-loaded working memory, is included in standard cognitive assessments, but rarely scored separately from forward digit span.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

The 'listening span task' measures executive-loaded working memory in the verbal domain.

“The 'listening span task' measures executiveloaded working memory in the verbal domain (e.g.Siegel & Ryan, 1989;Leather & Henry, 1994).”

• cites Siegel & Ryan, 1989Not checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

• cites Leather & Henry, 1994Not checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based). May combine two claims.

The WCST is broadly in the visuospatial domain, although numerosity judgements may involve verbal counting.

“The WCST is broadly in the visuospatial domain, although numerosity judgements may involve verbal counting.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

A UK-normed, standardised version is available in the Working Memory Test Battery for Children (WMTB-C, Pickering & Gathercole, 2001) with an age range of 5-15 years.

“A UK-normed, standardised version is available in the Working Memory Test Battery for Children (WMTB-C, Pickering & Gathercole, 2001) with an age range of 5-15 years.”

• cites Pickering & Gathercole, 2001Not checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.