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Cited by 1,313Neural and Behavioral Psychology StudiesDevelopmental and Educational NeuropsychologyCognitive Abilities and Testing

A normative‐developmental study of executive function: A window on prefrontal function in children

Welsh, Marilyn C., Pennington, Bruce F., Groisser, Dena B.·1991·Developmental Neuropsychology
DOI 10.1080/87565649109540483
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Abstract

Normative‐developmental performance on a battery of executive function tasks was investigated. Executive function was defined as goal‐directed behavior, including planning, organized search, and impulse control. Measures were drawn from clinical neuropsychology (visual search, verbal fluency, motor sequencing, and Wisconsin Card Sorting Task [WCST]) and from developmental psychology (Tower of Hanoi [TOH] and Matching Familiar Figures Test [MFFT]). A discriminant task, recognition memory, was administered, and IQ scores were available on a subset of the sample. One hundred subjects ranging from 3 to 12 years old participated; an adult group was also studied. Three major results were found: (a) adult‐level performance on different subsets of the executive function tasks was achieved at three different ages—6 years old, 10 years old, and adolescence; (b) the measures clustered into three different factors reflecting speeded responding, set maintenance, and planning; and (c) most of the executive function tasks were uncorrelated with IQ. The implications of these results for our understanding of the development of prefrontal lobe functions are discussed.

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  • Factor analytic studies reveal a separate factor for fluency/response speed variables from executive function tasks.

    “findings from factor analytic studies that reveal a separate factor for fluency/response speed variables from executive function tasks”

    From Assessing Executive Function in Preschoolers (2012) · cites this paper as Welsh, Pennington, & Groisser, 1991

  • The Tower of Hanoi is purported to tap planning ability and requires moving three different sized disks across three pegs to achieve a specific configuration.

    “This test is purported to tap planning ability, and requires the child to move three different sized disks across three pegs to achieve a specific configuration.”

    From Assessing Executive Function in Preschoolers (2012) · cites this paper as Welsh, Pennington, & Groisser, 1991

  • On the Tower of Hanoi, steady improvement in performance is observed across the preschool period.

    “On the Tower of Hanoi, a measure that taps planning ability, steady improvement in performance is observed across the preschool period (K. A. Espy, Kaufmann, & Glisky, 2001;Welsh, Pennington, & Groisser, 1991).”

    From Assessing Executive Function in Preschoolers (2012) · cites this paper as Welsh, Pennington, & Groisser, 1991

  • Children younger than 4 years get very few trials correct on the Tower of Hanoi, and a significant increase in performance is observed between 3 and 4 years.

    “It should be noted however, that children younger than 4-years of age get very few trials correct and a significant increase in performance is observed between 3-and 4-years.”

    From Assessing Executive Function in Preschoolers (2012) · cites this paper as Welsh, Pennington, & Groisser, 1991

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Authors
Welsh, M. C., Pennington, B. F., & Groisser, D. B.
Affiliations
  • University of Denver (US)
  • University of Colorado Health (US)
ORCID
Venue
Developmental Neuropsychology
Publisher
Informa UK Limited
Published
1991-01
Volume
7
Issue
2
Pages
131-149
ISSN
  • 1532-6942 (ISSN-L)
  • 8756-5641
DOI
10.1080/87565649109540483
OpenAlex
W2098266053
Cited by
1,313
References
62
Citations by year
2026: 10 · 2025: 15 · 2024: 14 · 2023: 29 · 2022: 40 · 2021: 46 · 2020: 45 · 2019: 26 · 2018: 51 · 2017: 47 · 2016: 53 · 2015: 55 · 2014: 60 · 2013: 72 · 2012: 53
FWCI
7.27
Type
journal article
Language
en
Open access
closed
Locations
Developmental Neuropsychology (publishedVersion)
Funders
  • March of Dimes Foundation
  • National Institute of Mental Health
Topics
  • Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Cognitive Neuroscience › Neural and Behavioral Psychology Studies
  • Social Sciences › Psychology › Neuropsychology and Physiological Psychology › Developmental and Educational Neuropsychology
  • Social Sciences › Psychology › Experimental and Cognitive Psychology › Cognitive Abilities and Testing
Keywords
executive function, prefrontal cortex development, children, planning, set maintenance, impulse control, verbal fluency, motor sequencing, Wisconsin Card Sorting Test, Tower of Hanoi, Matching Familiar Figures Test, recognition memory

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