Origins and outcomes of individual differences in emotion regulation.

“…conducted on normallydeveloping families and applied to normative developmental processes (e.g., Eisenberg et al., 1995, 1996), knowledge of affective exchange and regulation may be helpful in understanding mechanisms underlying the development of psychopathology (Calkins, 1994; Cole et al., 2004).”

“…to deficits in other developmental domains including physiological adjustment, the presence of externalizing, and internalizing behavior problems (Calkins, 1994; Hill, Degnan, Calkins, & Keane, 2006), low social competence (Mendez, Fantuzzo, & Cicchetti, 2002; Spinrad et al., 2006), and poor…”

“Behavioral and emotional regulation can be defined as the intrinsic and extrinsic processes underlying the management of emotional arousal and adaptive behavioral responses (Calkins, 1994; Gross, 2009; Thompson, 1994).”

“Theoretic models have postulated that autonomic regulation of the heart is one of the basic sources of emotion regulation (Calkins 1994).”

“A supportive and nurturing parent can help children learn to rely upon the parent for support, and help children develop the capacity to manage their distress (Calkins, 1994; Fogel, 1982).”

“Emotion regulation is defined as successful management of emotional arousal to secure effective social functioning (e.g., Calkins, 1994; Dodge & Garber, 1991) and it is effected by the child either by her/himself or with the help of others, such as parents or other adults (Cole, Michel, & O’Donnell…”

“7 development of emotion regulation can therefore be conceptualised as an interactive process involving the combination of experiences of having one’s emotions responded to and managed by caregivers and observing how other’s regulate their own emotions (Calkins, 1994).”

“(2004) definition; (b) the term used to describe these difficulties in the NCCIP 0–3 classification system (Zero To Three 2005) is “regulatory disorders;” and (3) the term “sensory regulation” parallels the concepts of emotion regulation (Calkins 1994; Garber and Dodge 1991; Vondra et al. 2001), behavior regulation (V…”

“Empirical research suggests that arousal beyond a certain level may interfere with an individual’s ability to respond adaptively in an emotionally evocative situation (i.e., engage in adaptive emotion regulation; Bradley, 1990; Calkins, 1994; Cole, Michel, & O’Donnell-Teti, 1994).”

“For example, the following mechanisms have been proposed to explain substance use and recidivism: temperament (Stice & Gonzales, 1998), anger (Cornell, Peterson, & Richards, 1999), depression (Capaldi, 1992), ego resiliency (Best, Hauser, & Allen, 1997), self-esteem (Scheier, Botvin, Griffin, & Diaz, 2000), emotional…”

“…& Coy, 1997; Kochanska, Murray, Jacques, Koenig, & Vandegeest, 1996; Kopp, 1989; Olson, 1989); deficits in self-regulation are associated with increased risk of aggression, impulsivity, and social rejection (Calkins, 1994; Campbell, 1995; Hoaken, Shaughnessy, & Pihl, 2003; Olson & Hoza, 1993).”

“…overwhelm children’s strategic efforts, leading to use of less mature strategies such as thumb-sucking or seeking adult support at an age at which many children are capable of the more optimal strategy of distracting themselves (Calkins, 1994; Cole et al., 1994; Gilliom et al., 2002; Kopp, 1989).”

“However, caregivers are believed to play a role in the development of behavioral regulation (Calkins, 1994).”

“Calkins (1994) points out that opposing parenting styles, such as responsive versus insensitive and accepting versus neglecting parenting, are likely to interact with children’s behavior traits, such as adaptability versus reactivity, in order to promote or interfere with the development of emotion…”

“27–28) and to facilitate functioning (Calkins, 1994; Saarni, 1999).”

“…has been made in exploring transactional models that include reciprocal and interwoven contributions from both biological and environmental factors in the development of self-regulation (Calkins, 1994; Campbell, 1995; Henderson & Rubin, 1997; Kochanska, 1997; Olson et al., 1990; Shaw & Bell, 1993).”

“Traditional developmental models (e.g., Kopp, 1989; Calkins, 1994) presume the ability to regulate emotion is a process Frontiers in Psychology | www.frontiersin.org 10 December 2021 | Volume 12 | Article 771698 that begins during infancy and continues to develop through early childhood and…”

“A somewhat thorny construct to define, recent efforts have attempted clarification (e.g., Calkins, 1994; Campos et al., 1989; Cole et al., 2004; Cole, Michel, & Teti, 1994; Kopp, 1989; Thompson, 1994; see special edition of Child Development , volume 75, 2004).”

“Another area of agreement among researchers interested in emotion regulation is the idea that what is regulated involves physiological arousal, cognitive processes (e.g., attentional processes, interpretation of events, expectations), and behavioral tendencies (Calkins, 1994).”

“Maladaptive parenting and social learning via caregiver emotional behavior also directly contribute to child reactivity and distress (path f, Calkins, 1994; path g, De Rosnay et al., 2006).”

“Indeed, some existing research suggests that development of ER strategies is a bidirectional process (Calkins 1994; Morris et al. 2007).”

“Consistent with this expectation, abundance of empirical studies report that angry, aggressive, and hostile parenting practices during early childhood predict conduct problems during childhood (Bates et al., 1991; Calkins, 1994; Campbell & Ewing, 1990; Eisenberg et al., 2001; Martin, 1981; O’Leary, Smith-Slep, & Reid,…”

“In addition to a psychological perspective, understanding of attachment requires study of the physiological processes associated with social experience [33-36].”

“Each individual carries a toolbox of strategies to regulate their emotions [Calkins, 1994; John & Gross, 2007], which can be driven by others, driven by the self, and can be active or passive [Gross, 1998; Gyurak & Etkin, 2014].”

“ED, psychopathology, and health Clinically significant ED is typically viewed as a problem that emerges in childhood, potentiates psychopathology by adolescence, and worsens in adulthood [14–16].”

“It has been suggested that parental behaviour may account for both continuity and discontinuity in behavioural inhibition (Arcus, Gardner, & Anderson, 1992; Calkins, 1994; Kagan, 1989), though only a few studies have examined the role of parents’ socialisation practices and the development of inhibition.”

“Consistent with expectations based on increase in inhibitory skills from the toddler to preschool period (Calkins 1994), on average, aggressive, overactive, and inattentive behaviors decreased over time from the first to the final assessment point (an approximately 2-year period).”

“Contrary to previous research (Calkins, 1994; Ladd & Price, 1987; Martin, 1994), direct relationships were not found between children’s negative emotionality and either academic or social outcomes.”

“Researchers have called for an examination of individual differences in the intensity, lability, and range of children’s emotional expressions (e.g., Thompson, 1994; Thompson, Flood, & Lundquist, 1995) and in children’s abilities to control such emotional displays ( Calkins, 1994 ).”

“In contrast, failure to control emotions or impulses and modify behavior according to others’ requests in this period is associated with later behavior problems (Calkins, 1994; Rubin, Burgess, Dwyer, & Hastings, 2003; Shaw, Bell, & Gilliom, 2000).”

“However, emotion regulation skills are thought to be relatively stable traits that develop in early childhood, presumably prior to the onset of NSSI (e.g., Calkins, 1994), and therefore, some assumptions may be made about the direction of causality.”

“…the emotional and physiological reactions associated with anger are particularly difficult for women with histories of substance use to manage, we have operationalized the construct of emotion regulation as anger arousal and reactivity (Calkins, 1994; Cicchetti et al., 1991; Cloitre et al., 2002).”

“Variability in children’s affect regulation can also be ascribed to external sources ( Calkins, 1994 ), such as parent‐child relationships.”

“…have suggested that early regulatory abilities develop from contingent processes in early childhood and become more independently directed later (Calkins, 1994; Cole et al., 1994; Kopp, 1989), making proximal extrinsic factors such as parenting especially important to consider during very early…”

“Effortful control systems are assumed to continue developing during the pre-school years in interaction with environmental factors such as parenting practices (cf. Calkins, 1994).”

“Research on ER more generally suggests that an infant’s environment (e.g., parenting; Cassidy, 1994) and biology (e.g., temperament, psychophysiological reactivity; Calkins, 1994) influence their emotion regulation and coping strategies.”

“29 building on earlier models emphasizing the importance of parent-child interaction in the 499 development of self-regulation (e.g. Vygotsky, 1978; Kopp, 1982; Calkins, 1994).”

“Emotion regulation is a multidimensional construct, which includes behavioural and biological components (Calkins, 1994).”

“…studies have demonstrated the importance of the primary caregiver for the regulation of arousal in young infants (e.g., Gable and Isabella, 1992; Calkins, 1994; Porter, 2003), indicating infants are dependent on caregivers for other-regulation during the early months of postnatal development.”

“Initially, our goal was to test a model of the role of frustrated temperament and ER, moderated by sensitive caregiving, as a predictor of multiple outcomes, including externalizing behavior (Calkins, 1994).”

“Emotion regulation is a multidimensional construct composed of behavioral and biological components and has been found to be influenced by environmental factors such as parenting (Calkins, 1994; Calkins, Graziano, Berdan, Keane, & Degan, 2008; Hoffman, Crnic, & Baker, 2006).”

“genetic variables as well as temperament [21,29,30].”

“The ability to regulate emotions in socially appropriate ways is an important objective for a child’s development (Bridges and Grolnick 1995; Calkins 1994; Calkins and Leerkes 2004; Tronick et al. 1978).”

“Emotion regulation reflects children’s ability to control extreme states of both positive and negative reactivity so that mutual and reciprocal interactions are possible (Calkins, 1994).”

“with the development of poor emotion regulation skills, behavior problems, and psychopathology (Calkins, 1994; Chang, Schwartz, Dodge, & McBride-Chang, 2003).”

“Infancy and Early Childhood The topic of self-regulation has generated important research and theorizing regarding the role of regulation in young children’s adjustment versus maladjustment (Calkins, 1994; Eisenberg et al., 1995, 1996; Thompson & Calkins, 1996).”

“Through sensitive, predictable responding by parents, infants are thought to begin the process of developing a repertoire of emotion regulation strategies, solidifying over time to engender better coping as children grow older (Calkins, 1994).”

“To conceptualize the effect of M‐C conflict on children’s socioemotional development, we use an emotion regulation framework ( Calkins 1994 ).”

“Moreover, child temperament and caregiver characteristics, including attachment behaviors, have been proposed to interact with eachother in predicting developmental outcomes (e.g., Calkins, 1994 ).”

“Sensitive responding to infant distress is often described as dyadic regulation, because the sensitive mother adapts her behavior based on the infant’s cues to facilitate an optimal level of arousal, which in turn is known to facilitate self-regulation of emotions (Calkins, 1994; Sroufe, 1989).”

“One such task that warrants particular attention is emotion regulation (ER), a foundational skill integral to normative development and adaptive functioning (Calkins, 1994; Cole, Michel, & Teti, 1994).”

“In this regard, many researchers have suggested that regulating emotions is virtually associated with social functioning (Calkins, 1994; Conway, 2005; Eisenberg, Fabes, Guthrie, & Reiser, 2000).”

“Theoretical accounts propose a developmental progression in children’s emotion regulation abilities characterized by greater complexity, effectiveness, and independence over time, which parallels corresponding maturational advances in cognition and neurobiology, as well as the changing nature of social influences (Cal…”

“Individual Differences in Emotion Regulation There are varying degrees of capacity for emotion regulation among children (Calkins 1994).”

“In addition, theory on the role of parenting in child emotional development posits that parenting behaviors, particularly in the face of stress, contributes to how youth interpret and respond to negative experiences within their social environment in particular (Bowlby 1977; Calkins 1994).”

“Children who have low tolerance to frustration spend greater amounts of time in dysregulated states than do children who are better able to navigate stressful situations (Calkins, 1994).”

“As Calkins (1994) has pointed out elsewhere, “emotional arousal may facilitate, inhibit, or disrupt behavior.””

“may inhibit the development of infants' adaptive self-regulation and contribute to behavior problems over time (Calkins, 1994; Leerkes, Blankson, & O'Brien, 2009).”

“, 2009): challenging temperaments (Calkins, 1994; Campbell, 2002; Denham et al., 2000; Rubin et al., 2003); a depressed parent; and a parent with low levels of parenting efficacy, who does not believe he or she can manage their children’s behavior (MacPhee, Fritz, & MillerHeyl, 1996; Shumow & Lomax, 2002).”

“Maternal involvement is extremely important in regulating the child’s physiological and emotional arousal states, either by: (1) providing the means for the child’s physical survival and well being (food, shelter, clothing, and physical soothing); or (2) through more complex interactions (caregiving styles or explicit…”