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Origins and outcomes of individual differences in emotion regulation.
Abstract
Recent discussions of emotion regulation in infants and young children have focused on the individual differences that exist in this domain of development. Such differences may be seen at the outcome level, in terms of variations in the development of particular strategies as a result of infant or caregiver effects. In this essay, a general hypothetical pathway to emotion regulation and dysregulation comprising interactions among a number of internal and external factors thought to impinge on the emotion regulation process has been proposed. Relations among these factors were hypothesized, and examples of pathways to particular types of social behavior in a peer setting were advanced. It is suggested that empirical confirmation of these pathways would enhance our understanding of adaptive regulatory behavioral patterns as well as patterns that may be dysregulating and potentially place the child at risk for the development of psychopathological disorders. To be successful, such studies must include consideration of the reciprocal interaction between the infant's behavioral and cognitive traits and the caregiving environment over extended periods of early development.
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“The development of behavioral and physiological systems to regulate emotion occurs rapidly in early infancy and is dependent on experience and, most important, experience in social interactions with parents (Calkins, 1994;Gunnar & Donzella, 2002;Schore, 2000;Tronick, 1989).”
From Infants' vagal regulation in the still-face paradigm is related to dyadic coordination of mother–infant interaction (2004) · cites this paper as Calkins, 1994
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The Development of Emotion Regulation: A Neuropsychological Perspective
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“Researchers have called for studies examining the association between specific caregiver behaviors and toddler emotion regulation efforts (Calkins, 1994; Calkins et al., 1998; Crockenberg & Leerkes, 2004; Gratz et al., 2018; Kopp, 1989).”
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“A general definition of emotion regulation is that it involves the monitoring of emotion and the implementation of various techniques or strategies to control one’s emotional state (Bridges & Grolnick, 1995; Calkins, 1994; Kopp, 1989; Thompson, 1994).”
MethodEmotion and the Development of Psychopathology
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Emotion and Self‐Cutting: Narratives of Service Users Referred to a Personality Disorder Service
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“Humour of children, personal characteristics of caregivers, and behavioural interactions are critical for emotion regulation skill development (Calkins, 1994).”
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“There is empirical evidence that arousal beyond a certain level interferes with an individual’s ability to respond adaptively in emotionally evocative situations [72].”
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Endrerud, M. S., & Vikan, A. (2007) · Nordic Psychology · doi:10.1027/1901-2276.59.2.127 · Cited by 12
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“In studies examining predictors of emotion regulation development, two broad factors have been found to be central to the development and maintenance of emotion regulation: influences external to the individual, and influences internal to the individual (for the seminal review, see Calkins, 1994).”
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“…children: develop their internal working models that are composed of beliefs concerning themselves, others, social relations, and the world at large (Cassidy and Shaver 1999); acquire emotion-related capacities (Calkins 1994); and form cognitive styles to process social cues (Crick and Dodge 1994).”
BackgroundPrivate speech and the development of self-regulation: The importance of temperamental anger
Whedon, M., Perry, N. B., Curtis, E. B., & Bell, M. A. (2021) · Early Childhood Research Quarterly · doi:10.1016/j.ecresq.2021.03.013 · Cited by 17
Do Overgeneral Memories Make us feel better? An experimental examination
Bunnell, S. L., & Greenhoot, A. F. (2017) · Memory · doi:10.1080/09658211.2017.1323105 · Cited by 9
“…improvements in the sophistication and efficacy of deliberate coping strategies up through adolescence (Beauregard, Levesque, & Paquette, 2004; Calkins, 1994; Compas, Connor-Smith, Saltzman, Thomsen, & Wadsworth, 2001; Eisenberg, Champion, & Ma, 2004; Kopp, 1989; Neshat-Doost, Taghavi,…”
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Developmental Differences in Child and Adolescent Reasoning About Anxiety Sensations
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Racial-ethnic differences in positive emotion socialization: Links to child emotional lability
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Behavior problems among cocaine exposed children: Role of physiological regulation and parenting
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“Calkins (1994) notes that these infants may also be particularly susceptible to other parenting problems and suggests that parents who ignore or fail to respond sensitively to infant frustration may obstruct their children’s otherwise naturally developing ability to regulate negative affect.”
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Social affective outcomes and brain injury in children and adolescents treated for brain tumours
Igoshina, E., Wu, L. C., Moxon‐Emre, I., & Mabbott, D. (2023) · The Lancet Child & Adolescent Health · doi:10.1016/s2352-4642(23)00079-2 · Cited by 10
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“또 다른 부모관련 요인인 어머니의 양육행동 은 아동의 정서조절능력을 예측하는 주요 변인 으로(Bernstein & O’Neill, 1992; Calkins, 1994), 아동은 사회화 과정에서 주양육자인 어머니와 의 긍정적 상호작용을 통해 정서조절능력을 발 달시킨다(Kopp, 1982).”
Mothers' Ideal Positive Affect Predicts their Socialization of Children's Positive Affect
Gentzler, A. L., Palmer, C. A., Yi, C. Y., Root, A. E., & Moran, K. M. (2018) · The Journal of Genetic Psychology · doi:10.1080/00221325.2018.1434479 · Cited by 10
“The parent-child relationship is especially important, given the influence that parents can have on children’s emotional development as children are forming their own emotional beliefs and goals, and are learning regulatory skills (e.g., Calkins, 1994; Eisenberg, Cumberland, and Spinrad 1998).”
BackgroundXI. GENERAL DISCUSSION: CHILDREN’S ADJUSTMENT AND ADAPTATION FOLLOWING THE BIRTH OF A SIBLING
Volling, B. L. (2017) · Monographs of the Society for Research in Child Development · doi:10.1111/mono.12317 · Cited by 11
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“It is this expression of affect that the caregiver appraises, interprets, and labels as communicating a specific ‘emotion’ in order for the child to begin to make meaning of and put words to his emotions (Calkins, 1994).”
BackgroundHongthong, D., & Areesantichai, C. (2013) · Journal of Substance Use · doi:10.3109/14659891.2013.827245 · Cited by 9
“When parents respond well to their child’s needs, that child is better able to regulate his or her emotions and behavior (Calkins, 1994).”
BackgroundEmotion regulation and young children’s consumer behavior
Lapierre, M. A. (2016) · Young Consumers Insight and Ideas for Responsible Marketers · doi:10.1108/yc-11-2015-00566 · Cited by 9
Pinto, H. M., Carvalho, A. R., & Sá, E. N. (2014) · Análise Psicológica · doi:10.14417/ap.844 · Cited by 15
Emotion regulation and reactivity are associated with cortical thickness in early to mid‐childhood
Ewell, A., Allard, T. L., Botdorf, M., Ji, A., & Riggins, T. (2023) · Developmental Psychobiology · doi:10.1002/dev.22412 · Cited by 9
Taraban, L., Shaw, D. S., Morris, P., & Mendelsohn, A. L. (2023) · Child Development · doi:10.1111/cdev.14000 · Cited by 7
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Wink, S., McKeown, L., & Casey, J. (2017) · Journal of Occupational Therapy Schools & Early Intervention · doi:10.1080/19411243.2017.1304839 · Cited by 7
“The term sensory regulation parallels the concepts of emotion regulation (Calkins, 1994; Vondra, Shaw, Swearingen, Cohen, & Owens, 2001), behavior regulation (Vondra et al., 2001), and attention regulation (Harris, Robinson, Chang, & Burns, 2007), used widely in developmental psychology literature…”
BackgroundMcGinley, M. M. (2008) · Lincoln (University of Nebraska) · Cited by 7
The Art of Forgiveness: Differentiating Transformational Leaders
de Vries, M. F. R. K. (2014) · Palgrave Macmillan UK eBooks · doi:10.1057/9781137382337_3 · Cited by 13
Lee, H.-N., & Lee, S. (2012) · Family and environment research · doi:10.6115/khea.2012.50.2.065 · Cited by 7
“Calkins(1994)는정서조절이정서적각성을조정하는데사용 되는 과정과 책략으로 이루어진다고 지적하면서, 정서조절 을통해효과적인대인관계가가능하다고하였다(quoted in Lim & Lee, 2010).”
Understanding Infant Pain Responding Within a Relational Context
Waxman, J. A., Martin, J., & Riddell, R. P. (2017) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-3-319-53232-5_9 · Cited by 8
Vazsonyi, A. T., & Javakhishvili, M. (2019) · Aggression and Violent Behavior · doi:10.1016/j.avb.2019.07.011 · Cited by 7
Jahromi, L. B., Umaña‐Taylor, A. J., Updegraff, K. A., Williams, C. D., & Kirkman, K. (2020) · Developmental Psychology · doi:10.1037/dev0001107 · Cited by 9
“Parents’ emotion scaffolding behaviors are believed to be critical to the development of children’s social-emotional and academic competencies (Calkins, 1994).”
BackgroundEmotion production of facial expressions: A comparison of deaf and hearing children
Jones, A. C., Gutierrez, R. G., & Ludlow, A. (2021) · Journal of Communication Disorders · doi:10.1016/j.jcomdis.2021.106113 · Cited by 10
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“This is due to the nature of their parent-child interchanges, which help the child’s brain to develop the necessary inhibitory mechanisms for selfregulation of aggressive and impulsive behavior (Calkings, 1994; Rosario Rueda, Posner, and Rothbart, 2005).”
BackgroundParanoia and maladaptive behaviours in homelessness: The mediating role of emotion regulation
Powell, K., & Maguire, N. (2017) · Psychology and Psychotherapy Theory Research and Practice · doi:10.1111/papt.12166 · Cited by 11
Mortaji, N., Krzeczkowski, J. E., Atkinson, S. A., Amani, B., Schmidt, L. A., & Lieshout, R. J. V. (2023) · Developmental Psychobiology · doi:10.1002/dev.22376 · Cited by 8
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“Calkins(1994) 는 정서조절이정서적각성을조정하는데사용되는과정과 책략으로 이루어진다고지적하면서, 이러한 정서 조절을 통 해효과적인대인관계가가능하다고하였다.”
Usta, M. B., Karabekiroğlu, K., Say, G. N., Gumus, Y., Aydın, M., Şahin, B., Bozkurt, A., Karaosman, T., Aral, A., Osmanlı, C. Ç., et al. (2020) · Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences · doi:10.5455/pbs.20190806125540 · Cited by 6
“Timing of trauma exposure may be critical for emotion regulation, which is known to develop rapidly during early childhood (25) and through the influence of observational learning, modeling, and social referencing (26).”
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Emotion regulation development of children adopted from institutional care
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Sex moderated and RSA mediated effects of prenatal cocaine exposure on behavior problems at age 7
Finger, B., McNeill, V., Schuetze, P. A., & Eiden, R. D. (2021) · Neurotoxicology and Teratology · doi:10.1016/j.ntt.2021.107052 · Cited by 5
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“Calkins(1994)는 정서조절 이 정서적 각성을 조정하는데 사용되는 과정과 책략으로 이루어진다고 지적하면서, 이러한 정서조절을 통해 효과적 인 대인관계가 가능하다고 하였다.”
Kim, J., & Kwon, Y.-H. (2010) · Family and environment research · doi:10.6115/khea.2010.48.3.001 · Cited by 5
“또한사회적인경험에대한 두려움을 조절하는 능력이 낮은 아동은 대인관계를 형성하 는 데에 두려움을 가지거나 행동억제를 나타내어 또래관계 에서도 사회적으로 위축되게 된다(노서연, 2003; Calkins, 1994).”
Hardway, C. L., Kagan, J., Snidman, N. C., & Pincus, D. B. (2013) · Journal of Psychopathology and Behavioral Assessment · doi:10.1007/s10862-013-9362-5 · Cited by 6
“Given that both internal and external factors contribute to the development of self-regulation skills, children high in reactivity may be at risk based on both their own internally sensitive systems as well as continued impact on parenting behaviors over time (Calkins 1994).”
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Self-Injurious Behaviors in Adolescents with Borderline Personality Disorder
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Electroencephalogram Emotion Recognition Based on Individual Frontal Asymmetry Hypothesis
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“Calkins [23] found that for everyone, their cognition and regulation of emotion are affected by their ability to use the necessary regulation strategies in infancy and the sensitivity of parents to meet the regulation needs of infants.”
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“External factors involve parental caregiving styles, which can provide essential external support (Calkins, 1994).”
VII. DEVELOPMENTAL TRAJECTORIES OF CHILDREN’S EMOTIONAL REACTIVITY AFTER THE BIRTH OF A SIBLING
Kuo, P. X., Volling, B. L., Gonzalez, R., Oh, W., & Yu, T. (2017) · Monographs of the Society for Research in Child Development · doi:10.1111/mono.12313 · Cited by 3
“Children learn to regulate their emotions through the support of their parents (Calkins, 1994).”
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“Individual differences among people have been a perma - nent focus of research, since they cause each individual to behave in a particular manner when dealing with situations (Calkins, 1994 ; Friedman & Miyake, 2017; Olson et al., 2011).”
IX. DEVELOPMENTAL TRAJECTORIES OF CHILDREN’S SOMATIC COMPLAINTS AFTER THE BIRTH OF A SIBLING
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VI. DEVELOPMENTAL TRAJECTORIES OF CHILDREN’S ANXIETY AND DEPRESSION AFTER THE BIRTH OF A SIBLING
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“Emotion regulation is regarded as an essential psychological capacity consisting of three primary cognitive, emotional, and behavioral dimensions: the ability to exhibit self-control; the ability to tolerate distress; and the ability to self-monitor and integrate awareness of emotions [21].”
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Fejlődési változások a fapofa (Still-Face) helyzetben megfigyelt anya–csecsemő interakciókban
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“A number of developmental psychologists have suggested that emotional regulatory skills should be launched as early as possible (Calkins, 1994; Diamond & Aspinwall, 2003; Eisenberg & Spinrad, 2004).”
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II. METHODS AND PROCEDURES FOR THE FAMILY TRANSITIONS STUDY
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Afshari, A., Doost, H. T. N., Sholeh, A., Ahmadi, M. K., & Maracy, M. R. (2014) · Management Science Letters · doi:10.5267/j.msl.2014.1.034 · Cited by 2
“Calkins (1994), for instance, studied origins and outcomes of individual differences in emotion regulation.”
BackgroundHan, J. A. (2016) · Korean Journal of Human Ecology · doi:10.5934/kjhe.2016.25.3.281 · Cited by 2
X. DEVELOPMENTAL TRAJECTORIES OF CHILDREN’S SLEEP PROBLEMS AFTER THE BIRTH OF A SIBLING
Safyer, P., Stevenson, M. M., Gonzalez, R., Volling, B. L., Oh, W., & Yu, T. (2017) · Monographs of the Society for Research in Child Development · doi:10.1111/mono.12316 · Cited by 2
Song, H. (2018) · Korean Journal of Child Studies · doi:10.5723/kjcs.2018.39.1.119 · Cited by 2
“구체적으로 우울과 불안으로 인한 신경내분비물질의 이상 분 비는 태아의 혈류 속도나 면역 체계에 변화를 일으켜 행동 억 제에 관여하는 신경전달물질 분비의 자동조절에 역기능을 가 져올 수 있다(Calkins, 1994; Goodman & Gotlib, 1999).”
Development of a Program for Improving Children’s Self-Regulation and Cognitive Regulation
박지현, & Song, H. (2010) · 한국유아교육·보육복지연구 · doi:10.16978/ecec.2010.5.2.003 · Cited by 2
Parenting Science and Emotion Regulation: Principles, Effects, Determinants, and Supports
Bornstein, M. H. (2023) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/9781009304368.003 · Cited by 3
Jacques, D. T., Sturge‐Apple, M. L., Davies, P. T., & Cicchetti, D. (2024) · Development and Psychopathology · doi:10.1017/s0954579424000324 · Cited by 5
‘Did you see that, Mom?’: Social Looking in Three‐Year‐Old Boys
Martin, S. E., Crnic, K. A., & Belsky, J. (2003) · Social Development · doi:10.1111/1467-9507.00243 · Cited by 2
“Consistent with developmental and transactional models (e.g., Calkins, 1994; Thompson, 1994), the conceptualization of social looking as an emotional communication process which is multiply determined by both familial and individual child factors seems particularly viable.”
Background
Metadata
- Authors
- Calkins, S. D.
- Affiliations
- University of Maryland, College Park (US)
- Corresponding author
- Calkins, Susan D
- ORCID
- Calkins, Susan D
- Venue
- Monographs of the Society for Research in Child Development
- Publisher
- Oxford University Press (OUP)
- Published
- 1994-02
- Volume
- 59
- Issue
- 2-3
- Pages
- 53-72
- ISSN
- 0037-976X (ISSN-L)
- 1540-5834
- OpenAlex
- W2061782744
- Cited by
- 545
- References
- 0
- Citations by year
- 2026: 9 · 2025: 9 · 2024: 9 · 2023: 18 · 2022: 9 · 2021: 13 · 2020: 20 · 2019: 30 · 2018: 19 · 2017: 28 · 2016: 28 · 2015: 20 · 2014: 24 · 2013: 24 · 2012: 21
- FWCI
- 9.27
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- closed
- Licence
- Locations
- Monographs of the Society for Research in Child Development (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Clinical Psychology › Child and Adolescent Psychosocial and Emotional Development
- Social Sciences › Education › Early Childhood Education and Development
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Developmental and Educational Psychology › Child and Animal Learning Development
- Keywords
- emotion regulation, individual differences, infants, young children, emotional dysregulation, developmental pathways, psychopathology risk, reciprocal interaction, early development
- MeSH terms
- Affect, Child, Child Behavior, Child, Preschool, Cognition, Exploratory Behavior, Humans, Individuality, Infant, Infant, Newborn, Interpersonal Relations
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