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Origins and outcomes of individual differences in emotion regulation.
Abstract
Recent discussions of emotion regulation in infants and young children have focused on the individual differences that exist in this domain of development. Such differences may be seen at the outcome level, in terms of variations in the development of particular strategies as a result of infant or caregiver effects. In this essay, a general hypothetical pathway to emotion regulation and dysregulation comprising interactions among a number of internal and external factors thought to impinge on the emotion regulation process has been proposed. Relations among these factors were hypothesized, and examples of pathways to particular types of social behavior in a peer setting were advanced. It is suggested that empirical confirmation of these pathways would enhance our understanding of adaptive regulatory behavioral patterns as well as patterns that may be dysregulating and potentially place the child at risk for the development of psychopathological disorders. To be successful, such studies must include consideration of the reciprocal interaction between the infant's behavioral and cognitive traits and the caregiving environment over extended periods of early development.
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“The development of behavioral and physiological systems to regulate emotion occurs rapidly in early infancy and is dependent on experience and, most important, experience in social interactions with parents (Calkins, 1994;Gunnar & Donzella, 2002;Schore, 2000;Tronick, 1989).”
From Infants' vagal regulation in the still-face paradigm is related to dyadic coordination of mother–infant interaction (2004) · cites this paper as Calkins, 1994
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Sacrey, L.-A. R., Raza, S., Armstrong, V. L., Brian, J. A., Kushki, A., Smith, I. M., & Zwaigenbaum, L. (2020) · Brain and Behavior · doi:10.1002/brb3.1989 · Cited by 38
Trait social anxiety as a conditional adaptation: A developmental and evolutionary framework
Karasewich, T. A., & Kuhlmeier, V. A. (2019) · Developmental Review · doi:10.1016/j.dr.2019.100886 · Cited by 45
Relations between dynamics of parent-infant interactions and baseline EEG functional connectivity
Perone, S., & Gartstein, M. A. (2019) · Infant Behavior and Development · doi:10.1016/j.infbeh.2019.101344 · Cited by 37
Haag, A., Bagrodia, R., & Bonanno, G. A. (2024) · Clinical Child and Family Psychology Review · doi:10.1007/s10567-024-00483-6 · Cited by 70
“Decades of research on adults and youth has linked skills in emotion regulation (ER) with psychological well-being (reviewed Aldao et al., 2010; Gross, 2008) and healthy development (Calkins, 1994; Cole et al., 2004).”
BackgroundFrom children’s expressive control to emotion regulation: Looking back, looking ahead
Cole, P. M., & Jacobs, A. E. (2018) · European Journal of Developmental Psychology · doi:10.1080/17405629.2018.1438888 · Cited by 29
“Emotion regulation was seen as a central but understudied feature of both typical development and of child psychopathology (Calkins, 1994; Cole et al., 1994).”
BackgroundVaalamo, I. (2002) · Journal of Pediatric Psychology · doi:10.1093/jpepsy/27.3.245 · Cited by 37
“…thus confirming that internalizing and externalizing problem behaviors have low attentional control in common, which is an integral part of emotion regulation (Calkins, 1994; Eisenberg et al., 2000; Gross, 1998, 1999b; Pope & Bierman, 1999; Pulkkinen et al., 2001; Rothbart & Putnam, in press).”
BackgroundEfficacy of attention regulation in preschool-age children who stutter: A preliminary investigation
Johnson, K. N., Conture, E. G., & Walden, T. A. (2012) · Journal of Communication Disorders · doi:10.1016/j.jcomdis.2012.04.001 · Cited by 36
“…in infancy, and changing from external sources of emotion regulation (e.g., caregivers) to more internal sources of self-regulation (for further discussion of the development of emotion regulation, see Calkins, 1994; Cole, Michel, & Teti, 1994; Diener & Manglesdorf, 1999; Stifter & Wiggins, 2004).”
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Lin, B., Crnic, K. A., Luecken, L. J., & Gonzales, N. A. (2014) · Infant Behavior and Development · doi:10.1016/j.infbeh.2014.07.001 · Cited by 36
“Self-regulation is believed to have roots in infancy, emerging as a result of interactions between infant dispositional regulation and caregiver co-regulatory functions (Calkins, 1994; Rothbart, 2011).”
BackgroundMaternal sensitivity and infant response to frustration: The moderating role of EEG asymmetry
Swingler, M. M., Perry, N. B., Calkins, S. D., & Bell, M. A. (2014) · Infant Behavior and Development · doi:10.1016/j.infbeh.2014.06.010 · Cited by 35
“…infancy and early childhood are powerful mediators of interpersonal relationships and socioemotional adjustment, including behavioral self-control (Calkins, 1994; Cicchetti, Ganiban, & Barnett, 1991; Malatesta, Culver, Tesman & Shephard, 1989; Rothbart, 1989; Thompson, 1994), and are associated…”
BackgroundInfluentialSelf-citationNoroña, A. N., & Baker, B. L. (2016) · Journal of Intellectual Disability Research · doi:10.1111/jir.12287 · Cited by 37
Developmental patterns of anger from infancy to middle childhood predict problem behaviors at age 8.
Liu, C., Moore, G. A., Beekman, C. R., Pérez‐Edgar, K. E., Leve, L. D., Shaw, D. S., Ganiban, J. M., Natsuaki, M. N., Reiss, D., & Neiderhiser, J. M. (2018) · Developmental Psychology · doi:10.1037/dev0000589 · Cited by 35
“One possible explanation for the high co-occurrence of internalizing and externalizing problems in the high–stable group is that high levels of early anger reactivity could impede the development of effective emotion-regulation skills (Calkins, 1994; Fox & Calkins, 1993).”
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“Specifically, we examined the brain processes associated with flexible or rigid parent–child interactions in children referred for behavior problems, because for them individual differences in ER capacities are critical predictors of developmental psychopathology outcomes (e.g., Bradley, 2003; Calkins, 1994; Calkins &…”
BackgroundResultInfluentialKokkonen, M., & Pulkkinen, L. (1999) · Personality and Individual Differences · doi:10.1016/s0191-8869(99)00040-9 · Cited by 33
Predictors of middle childhood psychosomatic problems: An emotion regulation approach
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“Of all temperamental characteristics, a lack of ability to regulate behavior and emotions, often referred to as self-regulation, inhibitory control, or self-control, is found to be a particularly important contributor to externalizing behaviors (Calkins, 1994; Gartstein & Fagot, 2003).”
BackgroundFields‐Olivieri, M. A., Cole, P. M., & Maggi, M. C. (2016) · Journal of Research in Personality · doi:10.1016/j.jrp.2016.05.007 · Cited by 32
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“contributes to youth cognitions about their social environment in particular (Bowlby 1977; Calkins 1994).”
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Leerkes, E. M., & Bailes, L. G. (2019) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-3-030-17332-6_24 · Cited by 35
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Mother-Child Conflict Interaction in the Toddler Years: Behavior Patterns and Correlates
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“Further, given that postnatal depression is associated with mothers showing less of the sensitive responsiveness that infants need for their developing emotion regulation (Calkins, 1994; Kopp, 1989), Infant EEG and temperament negative affectivity 897”
BackgroundInfluentialNewland, R. P., & Crnic, K. A. (2016) · Infant and Child Development · doi:10.1002/icd.1980 · Cited by 28
“Parental scaffolding may either harness or expand children’s engagement with their surroundings as a function of the way that parents help regulate child arousal in difficult moments (Calkins, 1994).”
Emotion regulation moderates the association between parent and child hair cortisol concentrations
Kao, K., Tuladhar, C. T., Meyer, J. S., & Tarullo, A. R. (2019) · Developmental Psychobiology · doi:10.1002/dev.21850 · Cited by 28
Gudmundson, J. A., & Leerkes, E. M. (2011) · Infant Behavior and Development · doi:10.1016/j.infbeh.2011.07.004 · Cited by 35
Adaptive Emotion Regulation among Low-Income African American Children
Kidwell, S. L., & Barnett, D. (2007) · Merrill-palmer Quarterly · doi:10.1353/mpq.2007.0011 · Cited by 31
“Both child psychophysiological reactivity (Calkins, 1994; Cummings & Davies, 1996) and attachment relationships with primary caregivers (Cassidy, 1994) are thought to influence the emergence of emotion regulation.”
BackgroundRoque, L., Veríssimo, M., Oliveira, T., & Oliveira, R. F. (2011) · Developmental Psychobiology · doi:10.1002/dev.20598 · Cited by 27
“According to a biopsychological perspective (Calkins, 1994; Gross & Thompson, 2007; Loman & Gunnar, 2010; Thompson & Meyer, 2007), the comprehension of emotions requires the study of the physiological processes associated with emotional experience, as well as the understanding of the reciprocal and dynamic relationshi…”
BackgroundAffect, emotion dysregulation, and sleep quality among low-income women
Hoag, J. R., Tennen, H. A., Stevens, R. G., Coman, E., & Wu, Z. H. (2016) · Sleep Health · doi:10.1016/j.sleh.2016.08.006 · Cited by 27
“Calkins (1994) detailed a theoretical framework in which behavioral traits influence emotion regulation and argued that positive or negative affect act as sources of individual variation in emotion regulation (23).”
BackgroundMultiple Maltreatment and the Development of Self and Emotion Regulation
Trickett, P. K. (1998) · Journal of Aggression Maltreatment & Trauma · doi:10.1300/j146v02n01_10 · Cited by 27
The psychobiology of emotional development: The case for examining sociocultural processes
Michalska, K. J., & Davis, E. L. (2018) · Developmental Psychobiology · doi:10.1002/dev.21795 · Cited by 31
“Failure to acquire the skills required to manage emotional responses may lead to dif‐ ficulties in social interaction (Calkins, 1994; Cicchetti, Ackerman, & Izard, 1995; Rubin, Coplan, Fox, & Calkins, 1995).”
BackgroundEmotion Regulation in Families of Children with Behavior Problems and Nonclinical Comparisons
Quetsch, L. B., Wallace, N. M., McNeil, C. B., & Gentzler, A. L. (2018) · Journal of Child and Family Studies · doi:10.1007/s10826-018-1081-9 · Cited by 26
Graham, R. A., Scott, B. G., & Weems, C. F. (2016) · Journal of Youth and Adolescence · doi:10.1007/s10964-016-0616-x · Cited by 27
“, inheritance of parents’ patterns of physiological functioning or via parent-child synchrony) and socially (e.g., shaping emotion regulation through parenting behaviors; Calkins 1994; Eisenberg and Fabes 1994; Kupper et al. 2004; Morris et al. 2007).”
BackgroundHaverfield, M. C., & Theiss, J. A. (2016) · Human Communication Research · doi:10.1111/hcre.12102 · Cited by 25
Individual Differences in Emotion Regulation in Infancy: A Thematic Collection
Stifter, C. A. (2002) · Infancy · doi:10.1207/s15327078in0302_1 · Cited by 25
Mothers' facial expressions of pain and fear and infants' pain response during immunization
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“Although moderate levels of negative affect can provide opportunities to practice SR skills (Kopp, 1989), extreme negative emotionality may interfere with the development of competent regulation (Calkins, 1994).”
BackgroundEarly Childhood Self-Regulation in Context: Parental and Familial Environmental Influences
Kiss, M., Fechete, G. L., Pop, M., & Susa, G. (2014) · Cognitie, Creier, Comportament · Cited by 25
Caregiver Emotional Availability, Caregiver Soothing Behaviors, and Infant Pain During Immunization
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“Parental emotional availability, as well as the more traditional concept of sensitivity, is central to the development of self-regulation of emotions (Bretherton, 2000; Calkins, 1994; Conradt & Ablow, 2010).”
BackgroundSavoring or dampening? Maternal reactions to children’s positive emotions in cultural contexts
Song, Q., Yang, Y., Doan, S. N., & Wang, Q. (2019) · Culture and Brain · doi:10.1007/s40167-019-00080-3 · Cited by 29
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Parent Socialization of Coping and Child Emotion Regulation Abilities: A Longitudinal Examination
Peisch, V. D., Dale, C. F., Parent, J. M., & Burt, K. B. (2019) · Family Process · doi:10.1111/famp.12516 · Cited by 31
Skibo, M. A., Sturge‐Apple, M. L., & Suor, J. H. (2020) · Development and Psychopathology · doi:10.1017/s0954579419001408 · Cited by 27
“Specifically, prevailing definitions of emotion regulation describe it as the ability to monitor, maintain, and modulate emotional arousal in the service of one’s goals (Calkins, 1994; Thompson, 1994).”
BackgroundCalkins, S. D., Gill, K., & Williford, A. P. (1999) · Early Education and Development · doi:10.1207/s15566935eed1003_3 · Cited by 24
“Rubin, Coplan, Fox & Calkins (1995) observed that "dysregulated children" displayed more externalizing symptoms and more solitary active behavior (behavior characterized by physical or self-stimulating actions) when interacting with peers. Olson (1992) reports a finding of greater aggression among problem children, ag…”
InfluentialSelf-citationLabella, M. H., Lind, T., Sellers, T., Roben, C. K. P., & Dozier, M. (2020) · Research on Child and Adolescent Psychopathology · doi:10.1007/s10802-020-00653-4 · Cited by 21
“Successful experiences regulating distress with the help of a responsive caregiver prepare infants and toddlers to regulate their own emotions with increasing independence across development (Calkins 1994; Thompson and Meyer 2007).”
Relations between Temperament and Anger Regulation over Early Childhood
Tan, P. Z., Armstrong, L. M., & Cole, P. M. (2012) · Social Development · doi:10.1111/j.1467-9507.2012.00674.x · Cited by 28
“, adult instruction) more difficult (Calkins, 1994).”
InfluentialConway, A., McDonough, S. C., MacKenzie, M. J., Miller, A. L., Dayton, C. J., Rosenblum, K. L., Muzik, M., & Sameroff, A. J. (2014) · Infant Mental Health Journal · doi:10.1002/imhj.21445 · Cited by 25
“Theory and research have suggested that the development of emotion regulation is based on caregivers’ sensitivity and the infants’ negative affect (Calkins, 1994; Kopp, 1989; Mangelsdorf, Shapiro, & Marzoff, 1995; Nachmias, Gunnar, Mangelsdorf, Parritz, & Buss, 1996).”
BackgroundGuo, Y., Leu, S., Barnard, K. E., Thompson, E. A., & Spieker, S. J. (2015) · Infant and Child Development · doi:10.1002/icd.1917 · Cited by 26
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“Thus, maternal perceptions of infant emotional expressions may have consequences for later emotional development and adjustment (Calkins, 1994).”
BackgroundBuss, K. A., Brooker, R. J., & Leuty, M. E. (2008) · Infancy · doi:10.1080/15250000701779360 · Cited by 25
“, comfort seeking and proximity) because the literature widely depicts mothers as the source of regulation in infancy and the scaffold from which later attempts at self-regulation are recalled and modeled (Calkins, 1994; Calkins, Dedmon, Gill, Lomax, & Johnson, 2002; Kopp, 1989; Spinrad, Stifter, Donelan-McCall, & Tur…”
BackgroundInfluentialMotor behavioral cues of term and preterm infants at 3 months
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“Young children who show symptoms may be distinguished by dysfunction in emotion regulation, or the child’s ability to modulate emotional states in the service of meeting social or internal goals (Calkins, 1994).”
BackgroundThe role of emotion recognition skills in adult sexual revictimization.
Bell, K. M., & Naugle, A. E. (2008) · The Journal of Behavior Analysis of Offender and Victim Treatment and Prevention · doi:10.1037/h0100459 · Cited by 21
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“Individual differences in reactivity to emotion-eliciting stimuli have been observed in humans as early as infancy (Calkins 1994).”
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“Parents scaffold the early environment for young children, typically promoting strategies for regulating emotions and modeling adaptive versus maladaptive ways of coping with their own emotions (Calkins, 1994; Kopp, 1989).”
BackgroundYükçü, Ş. B., & Demircioğlu, H. (2020) · Early Child Development and Care · doi:10.1080/03004430.2020.1720671 · Cited by 28
“It is argued that emotion regulation skills in children develop largely in the context of parent−child interaction (Calkins, 1994; Field, 1994; Fox & Calkins, 2003).”
BackgroundCharacterizing the Network Architecture of Emotion Regulation Neurodevelopment
Moreira, J. F. G., McLaughlin, K. A., & Silvers, J. A. (2021) · Cerebral Cortex · doi:10.1093/cercor/bhab074 · Cited by 22
Secure attachment in infancy predicts context-dependent emotion expression in middle childhood.
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“Furthermore, poor emotion regulation and uncontrolled emotionality has been associated with later psychopathology, such as depression, aggression, and social withdrawal (Calkins, 1994, Cicchetti et al., 1995 and Izard, 2002).”
BackgroundEmotion Regulation in Childhood Anxiety
Jacob, M. L., Thomassin, K., Morelen, D. M., & Suveg, C. M. (2011) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-1-4419-7784-7_12 · Cited by 20
“The tendency to respond in particular ways to environmental situations and challenges is believed to be, at least in part, temperamental ( Calkins, 1994 ).”
BackgroundDiaz, A., Swingler, M. M., Tan, L., Smith, C. L., Calkins, S. D., & Bell, M. A. (2019) · Infant Behavior and Development · doi:10.1016/j.infbeh.2019.03.002 · Cited by 20
“…theoretical work suggests that the development of self-regulation of negative emotion seems to hinge on both the infant’s own capacity for utilizing necessary regulatory strategies and the parent’s sensitivity in meeting the regulatory needs of the infant (Calkins, 1994; Swingler et al., 2014).”
BackgroundSelf-citationTeacher Ratings of Behavioral Self-Regulation in Preschool Children
Olson, S. L., & Kashiwagi, K. (2000) · Journal of Applied Developmental Psychology · doi:10.1016/s0193-3973(00)00056-3 · Cited by 23
Koss, K. J., Lawler, J. M., & Gunnar, M. R. (2019) · Development and Psychopathology · doi:10.1017/s0954579419001226 · Cited by 21
“…from primarily external regulation to primarily internal regulation begins in infancy, development of internalized regulation occurs throughout the first few years of life and remains a stage-salient task during the toddler and preschool years (Calkins, 1994; Cicchetti et al., 1991; Sroufe, 2000).”
Parenting Style and the Vulnerable Child Syndrome
Duncan, A. F., & Caughy, M. O. (2009) · Journal of Child and Adolescent Psychiatric Nursing · doi:10.1111/j.1744-6171.2009.00203.x · Cited by 18
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“Most end up with inadequate regulatory emotional tools, and they maintain a high level of stress response (Calkins, 1994; Thompson, 1994). In a family conflict situation, these children are at two disadvantages: they are being stressed directly by the conflict and they are often losing the parental support to deal wit…”
BackgroundFamilial Accumulation of Social Anxiety Symptoms and Maladaptive Emotion Regulation
Asbrand, J., Svaldi, J., Krämer, M., Breuninger, C., & Tuschen‐Caffier, B. (2016) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0153153 · Cited by 20
“From a developmental perspective, ER begins as an interactive process between parent and child [12, 13].”
BackgroundYang, J., Yin, P., Wei, D., Wang, K., Li, Y., & Qiu, J. (2016) · Social Neuroscience · doi:10.1080/17470919.2016.1174150 · Cited by 18
Lipscomb, S. T., Laurent, H. K., Neiderhiser, J. M., Shaw, D. S., Natsuaki, M. N., Reiss, D., & Leve, L. D. (2013) · International Journal of Behavioral Development · doi:10.1177/0165025413508708 · Cited by 20
Gao, M. M., Saenz, C., Neff, D., Santana, M. L., Amici, J., Butner, J., Raby, K. L., Crowell, S. E., & Conradt, E. D. (2021) · Journal of Health Psychology · doi:10.1177/13591053211064984 · Cited by 18
“According to leading theories, this parasympathetic regulation of heart rate promotes emotion regulation and the ability to engage in social/affiliative behaviors, such as bonding or soothing (Beauchaine, 2001; Calkins, 1994; Porges, 1995).”
BackgroundVertsberger, D., & Knafo‐Noam, A. (2018) · Developmental Psychology · doi:10.1037/dev0000622 · Cited by 16
Lucas, A. R. (1997) · Journal of the American Academy of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry · doi:10.1097/00004583-199712000-00027 · Cited by 16
Castilla, D., Haro, M. V. N., Suso‐Ribera, C., Díaz‐García, A., Zaragozá, I., & García‐Palacios, A. (2022) · BMC Psychiatry · doi:10.1186/s12888-022-03800-x · Cited by 20
“ER is a complex process that involves regulating emotional arousal and emotional expressions flexibly according to the context demands [30, 31].”
BackgroundMeter, A. V., & Youngstrom, E. A. (2015) · Cognitive Therapy and Research · doi:10.1007/s10608-015-9738-9 · Cited by 18
“Dysfunctional emotion regulation is thought to develop as a result of many of the same factors that contribute to mood disorder, including both heritable, internal traits and external risk factors (Angst et al. 2003; Calkins 1994; Phillips et al. 2008; Silk et al. 2006).”
BackgroundStanton, A. M., & Meston, C. M. (2016) · Journal of Sex & Marital Therapy · doi:10.1080/0092623x.2016.1211206 · Cited by 18
“The ability to regulate emotional expression is considered to be critical for adaptive functioning (Baumeister & Vohs, 2004), and a lack of adequate control over emotion may be a contributing catalyst to the development of psychopathology (Calkins, 1994).”
BackgroundGartstein, M. A. (2019) · International Journal of Behavioral Development · doi:10.1177/0165025419850899 · Cited by 17
“Email: gartstma@wsu.edu The process of developing regulation, dependent of infant neurobehavioral functioning and temperament, is also necessarily interactive in nature, with caregivers and mother–infant interaction dynamics exerting direct and indirect effects (Calkins, 1994).”
BackgroundResultPunamäki, R., Flykt, M. S., Belt, R. H., & Lindblom, J. (2021) · Heliyon · doi:10.1016/j.heliyon.2021.e06728 · Cited by 19
“With the aid of an emotionally available caregiver, children gradually move from their initial complete dependency on maternal co-regulation into increasing capacity of self-regulation of emotional states (Calkins, 1994; Beeghly et al., 2011).”
BackgroundDevelopmental transitions as windows on parental socialization of emotions.
Calkins, S. D. (1999) · NC Digital Online Collection of Knowledge and Scholarship (The University of North Carolina at Greensboro) · Cited by 16
Self-citationDrabick, D. A. G., Strassberg, Z., & Kees, M. R. (2001) · Research on Child and Adolescent Psychopathology · doi:10.1023/a:1005283929585 · Cited by 16
“The ability to regulate emotions is related to competence at anticipating consequences and eliciting assistance from others when needed (Zeman, Penza, Shipman, & Young, 1997), as well as preferred peer status and an ability to negotiate conflict (Calkins, 1994; Day, Bream, & Pal, 1992); the use of aversive behaviors t…”
BackgroundDegnan, K. A., Hane, A. A., Henderson, H. A., Walker, O. L., Ghera, M. M., & Fox, N. A. (2015) · Development and Psychopathology · doi:10.1017/s0954579415000747 · Cited by 17
“From birth, caregivers’ cyclical engagement and disengagement of infants’ attention helps infants learn how to selfregulate by externally altering their arousal levels (Calkins, 1994).”
BackgroundEmotion and Personality Development in Childhood
Cummings, E. M., Braungart‐Rieker, J. M., & Schudlich, T. D. R. (2003) · Wiley eBooks · doi:10.1002/0471264385.wei0609 · Cited by 16
Towards a Generative Model for Emotion DynamicsPreprint
Ryan, O., Dablander, F., & Haslbeck, J. M. B. (2023) · doi:10.31234/osf.io/x52ns · Cited by 14
Marková, G., Houdek, L., & Kocábová, Z. (2021) · Frontiers in Public Health · doi:10.3389/fpubh.2021.653884 · Cited by 15
“, (12)], and thus could co-determine whether they experience and show positive emotions in stressful and emotionally arousing situations.”
BackgroundGenetic and Environmental Influences on Adolescent Emotional Inertia in Daily Life
Zheng, Y., & Asbury, K. (2019) · Journal of Youth and Adolescence · doi:10.1007/s10964-019-01075-2 · Cited by 15
“On the one hand, emotion regulation has been associated with biological and physiological processes such as endocrine responses, heart rates (e.g., vagal tone), and brain electrical activity (Calkins 1994; Calkins and Hill 2007).”
BackgroundWu, Y., & Schulz, L. (2019) · Child Development · doi:10.1111/cdev.13346 · Cited by 15
“However, many factors might affect children’s understanding of social display rules, including gender (Brody & Hall, 2008; Davis, 1995), temperament (Brody, 2000; Calkins, 1994), and culture (Cole, Bruschi, & Tamang, 2002; Matsumoto, 1990).”
BackgroundHaverfield, M. C., & Theiss, J. A. (2019) · Journal of Applied Communication Research · doi:10.1080/00909882.2019.1704827 · Cited by 16
“Parents help children develop behavioral regulation by modeling appropriate behavior, praising desirable behavior, and disciplining unwanted behavior (Calkins, 1994).”
BackgroundAffect Regulation in Pediatric Bipolar Disorder
Dickstein, D. P., Brazel, A. C., Goldberg, L. D., & Hunt, J. (2009) · Child and Adolescent Psychiatric Clinics of North America · doi:10.1016/j.chc.2008.12.003 · Cited by 15
Wu, Q., Feng, X., Hooper, E. G., & Ku, S. (2016) · Infant and Child Development · doi:10.1002/icd.1979 · Cited by 19
Metadata
- Authors
- Calkins, S. D.
- Affiliations
- University of Maryland, College Park (US)
- Corresponding author
- Calkins, Susan D
- ORCID
- Calkins, Susan D
- Venue
- Monographs of the Society for Research in Child Development
- Publisher
- Oxford University Press (OUP)
- Published
- 1994-02
- Volume
- 59
- Issue
- 2-3
- Pages
- 53-72
- ISSN
- 0037-976X (ISSN-L)
- 1540-5834
- OpenAlex
- W2061782744
- Cited by
- 545
- References
- 0
- Citations by year
- 2026: 9 · 2025: 9 · 2024: 9 · 2023: 18 · 2022: 9 · 2021: 13 · 2020: 20 · 2019: 30 · 2018: 19 · 2017: 28 · 2016: 28 · 2015: 20 · 2014: 24 · 2013: 24 · 2012: 21
- FWCI
- 9.27
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- closed
- Licence
- Locations
- Monographs of the Society for Research in Child Development (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Clinical Psychology › Child and Adolescent Psychosocial and Emotional Development
- Social Sciences › Education › Early Childhood Education and Development
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Developmental and Educational Psychology › Child and Animal Learning Development
- Keywords
- emotion regulation, individual differences, infants, young children, emotional dysregulation, developmental pathways, psychopathology risk, reciprocal interaction, early development
- MeSH terms
- Affect, Child, Child Behavior, Child, Preschool, Cognition, Exploratory Behavior, Humans, Individuality, Infant, Infant, Newborn, Interpersonal Relations
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