Cited by 580Posttraumatic Stress Disorder ResearchChild Abuse and TraumaMigration, Health and Trauma

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Trauma exposure and post‐traumatic stress disorder in the general population

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Frans, Ö., Rimmö, P.‐A., Åberg, L., Fredrikson, M.·2005·Acta Psychiatrica Scandinavica

DOI 10.1111/j.1600-0447.2004.00463.x

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Abstract

OBJECTIVE: To examine the lifetime prevalence of trauma experiences and post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD). METHOD: Questionnaire-assessed PTSD, the type of traumatic event experienced, perceived trauma impact, and trauma frequency in 1824 randomly selected men and women. RESULTS: PTSD lifetime prevalence was estimated at 5.6% with a 1 : 2 male-to-female ratio, in spite of men reporting greater trauma exposure. The highest PTSD risk was associated with sexual and physical assault, robbery and multiple trauma experiences. Controlling for trauma type did not account for gender differences, while controlling for experienced distress did. CONCLUSION: The conditional probability for PTSD varied as a function of trauma type, frequency and impact of the event, with increased rates associated with prevalent trauma exposure and higher perceived distress. The latter accounted for the gender effect, suggesting that gender differences in PTSD in part represent a generally greater vulnerability to stress in women.

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Ertan, D., Mezouar, N., Tarrada, A., Maillard, L. G., El‐Hage, W., & Hingray, C. (2024) · Epilepsy & Behavior · doi:10.1016/j.yebeh.2024.109863 · Cited by 6
“Approximately 70 % of the world population report being exposed to a traumatic event in their life [2], while 6 – 10 % develop a posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) following a traumatic event [3,4].”
BackgroundInfluential
Psychosocial Adjustment and Coping in the Post-conflict Setting
Johnson, E. K., & Chronister, J. A. (2010) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-1-4419-5722-1_12 · Cited by 5
Developing the PTSD Checklist-I/F for the DSM-IV (PCL-I/F): Assessing PTSD Symptom Frequency and Intensity in a Pilot Study of Male Veterans with Combat-Related PTSD
Holliday, R. P., Smith, J. B., North, C. S., & Surís, A. (2015) · Behavioral Sciences · doi:10.3390/bs5010059 · Cited by 5
“6% of the general population will go on to develop posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) [2].”
Background
From Posttrauma to Gender and Back: A Gender Motivation Theory-Explanation of Gender Differences in Trauma Exposure, Symptoms, Diagnosis, and Implications
Winstok, Z., & Weinberg, M. (2018) · Journal of Aggression Maltreatment & Trauma · doi:10.1080/10926771.2017.1420719 · Cited by 7
Trauma-related Symptoms after Violent Crime: The Role of Risk Factors before, during and Eight Months after Victimization
Semb, O., Henningsson, M., Fransson, P., & Sundbom, E. (2009) · The Open Psychology Journal · doi:10.2174/1874350100902010077 · Cited by 5
“Trauma type did not seem to account for gender differences while experienced distress did [6].”
PTSD symptoms of survivors of an airline event in Teheran
Mirzamani, S.-M., Mohammadi, M. R., & Mirzamani, M. (2007) · Cited by 5
Posttraumatic Stress Disorder
Schork, N. J., Baker, D. G., & Risbrough, V. B. (2008) · CRC Press eBooks · doi:10.1201/9781420071788.ch8 · Cited by 5
Higher risk – less data: A systematic review and meta-analysis on the role of sex and gender in trauma researchPreprint
Haering, S., Schulze, L., Geiling, A., Meyer, C., Klusmann, H., Schumacher, S., Knaevelsrud, C., & Engel, S. (2022) · doi:10.31234/osf.io/ad35g · Cited by 5
A population-based study assessing posttraumatic stress disorder and acute stress disorder in Turkish adults
Karaoğlan, G., Ekici, F., Demir, L. S., & Güler, Ö. (2025) · Journal of Psychiatric Research · doi:10.1016/j.jpsychires.2025.07.034 · Cited by 4
Effects of acute pain medications on posttraumatic stress symptoms in early aftermath of trauma
Grau, A. S., Xie, H., Redfern, R. E., Moussa, M., Wang, X., & Shih, C.-H. (2022) · International Clinical Psychopharmacology · doi:10.1097/yic.0000000000000413 · Cited by 4
“previous research demonstrated that types of traumatic events were associated with both acute and chronic posttraumatic stress disorders (Frans et al., 2005; Geoffrion et al., 2022).”
Background
The roles of cannabis potency and gender in cannabis dependence and anxiety in recent cannabis users with trauma exposure histories
Snooks, T., Stewart, S. H., Romero‐Sanchiz, P., DeGrace, S., Barrett, S. P., Bernusky, H. C. R., & Tibbo, P. G. (2025) · Pharmacological Research · doi:10.1016/j.phrs.2025.107586 · Cited by 4
Personal Versus Work-Related Trauma: Mental Health Nurse PTG Change from Resilience-Building Program
Miller, O. K., Shakespeare‐Finch, J., Shochet, I. M., Wurfl, A. M., Maybery, D. J., & Foster, K. (2025) · Journal of Loss and Trauma · doi:10.1080/15325024.2025.2461170 · Cited by 4
“Indeed, prior research has found an effect of cumulative trauma such that as the number of PTEs increases, so too do PTSD symptoms (e.g. Cromer & Smyth, 2010; Frans et al., 2005).”
The Experience and Psychological Impact of ‘Troubles’ related Trauma in Northern Ireland
Ferry, F. R., Bolton, D., Bunting, B., O’Neill, S. M., & Murphy, S. (2010) · The Irish Journal of Psychology · doi:10.1080/03033910.2010.10446328 · Cited by 4
The occurrence of happy and traumatic events in the life of common people
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“However, the latter seem to be exposed with greater frequency to rapes and sexual assaults (Breslau et al., 1998; Flett et al., 2004; Frans et al., 2005; Kessler et al., 1995; Norris, 1992; Norris et al., 2003; Rosenman, 2002; Stein et al., 1997).”
Background
The impact of motor vehicle injury on distress: Moderators and trajectories over time
Wiesenthal, N., & Vingilis, E. R. (2013) · Transportation Research Part F Traffic Psychology and Behaviour · doi:10.1016/j.trf.2013.08.004 · Cited by 4
An evidence based application of Guided Imagery and Its Impact on Resilience and Stress in Military/DOD nurses at risk for PTSD-A Pilot Project
Jenkins, M. Y. (2012) · Cited by 4
The Effects of Exposure to Factors Related to Death in Mental Health
Bolaséll, L. T., Oliveira, V. C. D. C., & Kristensen, C. H. (2021) · Journal of Loss and Trauma · doi:10.1080/15325024.2021.1959854 · Cited by 4
Association between migration status and subsequent labour market marginalisation among individuals with posttraumatic stress disorder: a Swedish nationwide register-based cohort study
He, J., Hollander, A., & Rahman, S. G. (2022) · Social Psychiatry and Psychiatric Epidemiology · doi:10.1007/s00127-022-02263-5 · Cited by 4
“In Sweden, * Syed Rahman syed.rahman@ki.se Jiangchuan He Jiangchuan.he@ki.se Anna-Clara Hollander anna-clara.hollander@ki.se 1 Epidemiology of Psychiatric Conditions, Substance Use and Social Environment (EPiCSS), Department of Global Public Health, Karolinska Institutet (KI), Solnavägen 1E, 113 65 Stockholm, Sweden 1…”
BackgroundInfluential
Pharmacotherapy of Posttraumatic Stress Disorder
Koller, A., & Stein, D. J. (2013) · Modern trends in psychiatry · doi:10.1159/000353540 · Cited by 4
Cortical Excitability and Agressive Behavior in Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder
Bolu, A., Balıkçı, A., Erdem, M., Öznur, T., Çelik, C., & Uzun, Ö. (2015) · Nöro Psikiyatri Arşivi · doi:10.5152/npa.2015.7031 · Cited by 4
“It is estimated that approximately 80%–100 % of people are exposed to at least one traumatic event throughout their lives (2).”
Background
Chronic pain in children and adolescents: a review.
Abu‐Saad, H. H. (2010) · PubMed · Cited by 4
Sex-dependent differences in vulnerability to early risk factors for posttraumatic stress disorder: Results from the AURORA studyPreprint
Haering, S., Seligowski, A. V., Linnstaedt, S. D., Michopoulos, V., House, S. L., Beaudoin, F. L., An, X., Neylan, T. C., Clifford, G. D., Germine, L. T., et al. (2023) · doi:10.31234/osf.io/57vjw · Cited by 4
PTSD and cognition in older adults: A systematic literature review
van Rossum, J. E., den Camp, S. O., Uiterwijk, R., Deckers, K., Orgeta, V., Gulpers, B. J. A., & Sobczak, S. (2025) · Journal of Anxiety Disorders · doi:10.1016/j.janxdis.2025.103047 · Cited by 3
“Approximately 60 – 80 % of the general global population will, at least once in their life, be exposed to a potential traumatic event (De Vries & Olff, 2009; Frans, Rimm ¨ o, Åberg, & Fredrikson, 2005).”
The prevalence of traumatic experiences and PTSD according to DSM-5 and ICD-11 in the German general population
Pettrich, A., Nesterko, Y., & Glaesmer, H. (2025) · Epidemiology and Psychiatric Sciences · doi:10.1017/s2045796025100164 · Cited by 6
“Conversely, for older adults, PTSD may arise from the cumulative impact of lifetime trauma, such as war-related experiences, although PTSD is often underreported in this population due to age-related vulnerabilities (Brewin et al. , 2000; Frans et al. , 2005; Ogle et al. , 2014).”
Incremental Influence of Betrayal Trauma and Personality Traits on PTSD Symptoms
Wallick, A., Ward, R. N., Levendosky, A., Brown, L., & Yalch, M. (2021) · Journal of Trauma & Dissociation · doi:10.1080/15299732.2021.1989119 · Cited by 4
Engagement in Meaningful Activity Mediates the Relationship Between Stressful Life Events and Functional Resilience
Sherman, D. S., Burnett, H. J., & Lindstrom, D. (2024) · OTJR Occupational Therapy Journal of Research · doi:10.1177/15394492241237746 · Cited by 4
“Estimates of PTSD in the general population are estimated to be 5.6% (Frans et al., 2005) to 7.8% (Kessler et al., 1995), which implies the importance of developing evidence-based strategies that promote functional resilience.”
Influential
Mental health in traumatically bereaved individuals: The role of loss‐related, personal, interpersonal, and emotion regulation factors
Þorvaldsdóttir, K. B., Jónsdóttir, E. K., Ásgeirsdóttir, B. B., & Sigurvinsdóttir, R. (2025) · Journal of Traumatic Stress · doi:10.1002/jts.23151 · Cited by 3
“Other population-based surveys show varied life-time prevalence of traumatic loss across countries: 32% in Sweden (Frans et al., 2005), 39% in Ireland (Hyland et al., 2021), 50% in the United States (Keyes et al., 2014), and 54% in the Netherlands (de Vries & Olff, 2009).”
Amygdala EFP Neurofeedback Effects on PTSD Symptom Clusters and Emotional Regulation Processes
Goldental, N., Gross, R., Amital, D., Harel, E. V., Hendler, T., Tendler, A., Levi, L., Lavro, D., Harmelech, T., Grinapol, S., et al. (2025) · Journal of Clinical Medicine · doi:10.3390/jcm14072421 · Cited by 3
“Post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) affects 5–9% of individuals exposed to traumatic events, with over 70% of adults worldwide experiencing potentially traumatic events during their lifetime [1].”
The work environment, critical incidents, debriefing and psychological functioning : a study of trade union members in Sweden
Söndergaard, H. P. (2008) · Cited by 3
The relationships between on-going terror attacks, military operations and wars and the well-being of Jewish and Arab three generations civilians in Israel
Ron, P., & Ron, A. (2017) · Zeszyty Pracy Socjalnej · doi:10.4467/24496138zps.17.003.6538 · Cited by 3
Post-traumatic Stress Disorder
Şahingöz, M., & Sarı, S. (2019) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-3-319-92919-4_18 · Cited by 3
Post-conflict acute stress reactions in Kazakhstan in the aftermath of January 2022 unrests: A national survey
Glushkova, N., Ivankov, A., Trenina, V., Oshibayeva, A., Kalmatayeva, Z., Temirbekova, Z., Mamyrbekova, S. A., Davletov, K., Khismetova, Z. A., Kauysheva, A., et al. (2023) · Heliyon · doi:10.1016/j.heliyon.2023.e21065 · Cited by 4
“The detrimental effects on mental health of such conflicts are surpassed probably only by war [4].”
Background
Childhood Trauma as a Mediator of Intergenerational PTSD Symptom Transmission in Rwanda: A Cross-Sectional Study
Huang, A. Y., Bonumwezi, J., Wang, K., Mew, E. J., Habintwali, D., & Lowe, S. R. (2024) · Journal of Loss and Trauma · doi:10.1080/15325024.2024.2422610 · Cited by 5
Post-traumatic stress disorder after terrorist attack in healthcare professionals
Evrın, T., Demirel, B., Yılmaz, B., Öztürk, L., Korkmaz, A., Ünlüer, E. E., Katipoğlu, B., Palabıyıkoğlu, R., Uzunget, S. C., Kazancı, E., et al. (2017) · Disaster and Emergency Medicine Journal · doi:10.5603/demj.2017.0003 · Cited by 3
“The lifetime prevalence of exposure to any trauma was 89.6% in the Detroit, Michigan area [12], 80.8% in Sweden [13], 76% for adults in Mexico [14], 80.3% for young women in Japan [15], 75% in South Africa [16], and 21.4% for youths in Munich, Germany.”
BackgroundInfluential
Resiliensi Trauma dan Gejala Posttraumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD) pada Dewasa Muda yang Pernah Terpapar Kekerasan
Paramitha, R. G., & Kusristanti, C. (2018) · Journal Psikogenesis · doi:10.24854/jps.v6i2.701 · Cited by 3
Traumatic Experiences Disrupt Amygdala – Prefrontal Connectivity
Hoon, D. (2012) · InTech eBooks · doi:10.5772/48691 · Cited by 3
“Estimates of the prevalence of traumatic experiences are likely to vary with the method of assessment (Breslau, 2002, Breslau et al., 1998, Copeland et al., 2007, Finkelhor et al., 2005, Frans et al., 2005, Helzer et al., 1987).”
Method
Management of trauma and PTSD
Benson-Martin, J. (2013) · CME/Continuing medical education · Cited by 3
Adapting to Acute Crisis
Storr, C. L., Azur, M. J., Bass, J., & Wilcox, H. C. (2012) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/acprof:oso/9780195390445.003.0011 · Cited by 3
Preventing child abuse and neglect
Efe, E. (2017) · Archives of Nursing Practice and Care · doi:10.17352/2581-4265.000028 · Cited by 3
PTSD and Cardiovascular Disease
Carmassi, C., Cordone, A., Pedrinelli, V., & Dell’Osso, L. (2020) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-3-030-28008-6_20 · Cited by 4
Gerontopsychotraumatologie
Böttche, M., Kuwert, P., & Knaevelsrud, C. (2019) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-3-662-58470-5_26 · Cited by 3

Authors: Frans, Ö., Rimmö, P. ‐., Åberg, L., & Fredrikson, M.
Affiliations: Uppsala University (SE)
Dalarna University (SE)
Corresponding author: Frans, Ö.
ORCID: Fredrikson, M.
Venue: Acta Psychiatrica Scandinavica
Publisher: Wiley
Published: 2005-03
Volume: 111
Issue: 4
Pages: 291-290
ISSN: 0001-690X (ISSN-L)
1600-0447
DOI: 10.1111/j.1600-0447.2004.00463.x
OpenAlex: W2139994007
Cited by: 580
References: 59
Citations by year: 2026: 20 · 2025: 31 · 2024: 26 · 2023: 27 · 2022: 33 · 2021: 24 · 2020: 31 · 2019: 39 · 2018: 31 · 2017: 39 · 2016: 20 · 2015: 32 · 2014: 28 · 2013: 32 · 2012: 27
FWCI: 26.23
Type: journal article
Language: en
Open access: bronze
doi.org
Licence: onlinelibrary.wiley.com/termsAndConditions#vor (vor)
Locations: Acta Psychiatrica Scandinavica (publishedVersion)
PubMed (publishedVersion)
Topics: Social Sciences › Psychology › Clinical Psychology › Posttraumatic Stress Disorder Research
Social Sciences › Psychology › Clinical Psychology › Child Abuse and Trauma
Social Sciences › Psychology › Clinical Psychology › Migration, Health and Trauma
Keywords: post-traumatic stress disorder, trauma exposure, lifetime prevalence, gender differences, sexual assault, physical assault, robbery, polytrauma, perceived distress, general population
MeSH terms: Adolescent, Adult, Aged, Crime, Cross-Sectional Studies, Female, Humans, Life Change Events, Male, Middle Aged, Surveys and Questionnaires, Recurrence, Risk, Sex Offenses, Sex Ratio, Statistics as Topic, Stress Disorders, Post-Traumatic, Sweden, Violence

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Trauma exposure and post‐traumatic stress disorder in the general population

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