The DOI matches its Crossref record; 63 of the 63 references it cites were found in a registry or an index.
Trauma exposure and post‐traumatic stress disorder in the general population
Open accessAbstract
OBJECTIVE: To examine the lifetime prevalence of trauma experiences and post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD). METHOD: Questionnaire-assessed PTSD, the type of traumatic event experienced, perceived trauma impact, and trauma frequency in 1824 randomly selected men and women. RESULTS: PTSD lifetime prevalence was estimated at 5.6% with a 1 : 2 male-to-female ratio, in spite of men reporting greater trauma exposure. The highest PTSD risk was associated with sexual and physical assault, robbery and multiple trauma experiences. Controlling for trauma type did not account for gender differences, while controlling for experienced distress did. CONCLUSION: The conditional probability for PTSD varied as a function of trauma type, frequency and impact of the event, with increased rates associated with prevalent trauma exposure and higher perceived distress. The latter accounted for the gender effect, suggesting that gender differences in PTSD in part represent a generally greater vulnerability to stress in women.
Overview
The claims and statistics of this paper haven’t been checked yet.
Run the check — free, no account needed. It reads the open-access text and checks the sources it cites.
Integrity signals
Registry
Cites
Statistics
Verification
Claims the paper makes
The claims and statistics of this paper haven’t been checked yet.
Run the check — free, no account needed. It reads the open-access text and checks the sources it cites.
Claims other papers make about this one
Each is checked against this paper’s own text: does it say what the citing paper says it does?
The cited source says what the claim attributes to it.
In the citing paper
“This finding suggests that making all MBPs trauma-inclusive is likely to be more useful than screening out or creating separate trauma-sensitive programs for trauma survivors with PTSD, as prevalence rates for lifetime trauma exposure (e.g., 80.8%) are estimated to be high within the general population [69].”
From Childhood trauma and subclinical PTSD symptoms predict adverse effects and worse outcomes across two mindfulness-based programs for active depression (2025) · cites this paper as [69]
The check wasn’t confident either way, so it gives no verdict — never disputed.
In the citing paper
“then the estimated normal boundary of 3.5 years may be later, possibly even closer to 4 years.”
From The Stress Acceleration Hypothesis of Nightmares (2017) · cites this paper as [107]
Experimental — accuracy not yet measured
Self-check
Percentages, sums and reported differences re-computed from the paper’s own numbers.
The self-check needs the paper’s full text.
Citations
Cites
Posttraumatic Stress Disorder in the National Comorbidity Survey
Kessler, R. C. (1995) · Archives of General Psychiatry · doi:10.1001/archpsyc.1995.03950240066012 · Cited by 10,379
Psychometric properties of the PTSD checklist (PCL)
Blanchard, E. B., Jones-Alexander, J., Buckley, T. C., & Forneris, C. A. (1996) · Behaviour Research and Therapy · doi:10.1016/0005-7967(96)00033-2 · Cited by 3,997
Traumatic Events and Posttraumatic Stress Disorder in an Urban Population of Young Adults
Breslau, N. (1991) · Archives of General Psychiatry · doi:10.1001/archpsyc.1991.01810270028003 · Cited by 2,544
Trauma and Posttraumatic Stress Disorder in the Community: The 1996 Detroit Area Survey of Trauma
Breslau, N., Kessler, R. C., Chilcoat, H. D., Schultz, L. R., Davis, G. C., & Andreski, P. (1998) · Archives of General Psychiatry · doi:10.1001/archpsyc.55.7.626 · Cited by 2,407
Resnick, H. S., Kilpatrick, D. G., Dansky, B. S., Saunders, B. E., & al, E. (1993) · Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology · doi:10.1037//0022-006x.61.6.984 · Cited by 1,868
Resnick, H. S., Kilpatrick, D. G., Dansky, B. S., Saunders, B. E., & Best, C. L. (1993) · Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology · doi:10.1037/0022-006x.61.6.984 · Cited by 1,868
The ESEMeD/MHEDEA 2000 Investigators, Alonso, J., Angermeyer, M. C., Bernert, S., Bruffaerts, R., Brugha, T. S., Bryson, H., de Girolamo, G., de Graaf, R., Demyttenaere, K., et al. (2004) · Acta Psychiatrica Scandinavica · doi:10.1111/j.1600-0047.2004.00327.x · Cited by 1,825
Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM-III-R)
Spitzer, R. L., & Williams, J. (1987) · Cited by 1,621
Norris, F. H. (1992) · Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology · doi:10.1037//0022-006x.60.3.409 · Cited by 1,527
Psychometric properties of the PTSD checklist—civilian version
Ruggiero, K. J., Ben, K. D., Scotti, J. R., & Rabalais, A. E. (2003) · Journal of Traumatic Stress · doi:10.1023/a:1025714729117 · Cited by 1,227
Research works printed but not linked: 10
- American Psychiatric Association (APA), 1994, Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorder (DSM‐IV)
- American Psychiatric Association, 1980, Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM III)
- Robins LN, 1981, NIMH Diagnostic Interview Schedule
- 10.1037/0022-006X.60.3.409 · DOI
- 10.1002/jts.2490070209 · DOI
- Weathers FW, 1993, The PTSD Checklist: Reliability, Validity and Diagnostic Utility
- Blake D, 1990, Clinician‐Administered PTSD Scale (CAPS)
- Abacus Concepts, 1996, StatView 5.0
- SAS Institute, 1990, SAS Procedures Guide
- 10.1037/0735-7044.115.2.358 · DOI
Cited by
Sorted by citations
Items 501–580 of 580
18 år efter Bosnien : Svenska Bosnienveteraners psykiska hälsa och psykologiska utveckling
Hammarström, F., & Månsson, K. N. T. (2012)
PTSD a nd A DHD: u nderlying factors i n m any c ases of b urnout
Brattberg, G. (2006)
Treatments for Post-traumatic Stress Disorder: Pharmaceutical and Electrophysiologic
Baker, C. G., Lerman, I., Espejo, E. P., & McLay, R. N. (2015)
Improving human reactivity to trauma exposure using affect labeling
Brown, L. A. (2016) · eScholarship (California Digital Library)
EXAMINATION OF BASAL NEUROENDOCRINE LEVELS IN OIF/OEF/OND VETERANS
Hawn, S. E. (2015) · VCU Scholars Compass (Virginia Commonwealth University) · doi:10.25772/6w94-6153
Hardwick, M. J. (2016) · Digital Commons - University of South Florida (University of South Florida)
Does acupressure potentiate the effect of imagery exposure on posttraumatic stress disorder
Elverum, T. (2011) · NORA - Norwegian Open Research Archives
최남희, 변주훈, 한동일, & 임숙빈 (2007)
Living with an implantable cardioverter defibrillator
Morken, I. M. (2014)
Sefatsa, M. (2016) · SUNScholar (Stellenbosch University)
Knauss, C., & Schofield, M. J. (2009)
Gil, S. (2017) · Journal of Child & Adolescent Trauma · doi:10.1007/s40653-017-0191-7
Genetics and Gene–Environment Interaction
Klengel, T., Lebois, L. A. M., Gaynor, S. M., & Guffanti, G. (2018) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/med/9780190457136.003.0017
Relationship Variables in Group Psychotherapy Treatment for Sexual Trauma Survivors
Gooch, S. (2018) · Digital Commons - DU (University of Denver)
Aslaner, D., Solmaz, M., Kulacaoğlu, F., Ardic, F. C., Balcıoğlu, Y. H., & Köse, S. (2018) · Psychiatry and Clinical Psychopharmacology · doi:10.1080/24750573.2018.1556910
“7% of the PTSD symptoms, but gender difference explained 2%of the variance [51].”
BackgroundTemple, J. (2019) · University of Liverpool · doi:10.17638/03033174
Storr, C. L., Lakin, D. P., & Tol, W. A. (2019) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/oso/9780190916602.003.0013
Hol, M. D. (2008) · Utrecht University Repository (Utrecht University)
International and cross-cultural parenting research and intervention ethics
Hock, R. S., Levey, E. J., Cooper‐Vince, C. E., & Harris, B. L. (2019) · Developments in neuroethics and bioethics · doi:10.1016/bs.dnb.2019.06.001
Eklind, R., & Granath, J. (2009)
Influence of trauma type on feigned Posttraumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD) symptom profiles
Mullan, M. A., & Sullivan, K. A. (2020) · Journal of Forensic Psychiatry and Psychology · doi:10.1080/14789949.2020.1736600
“It has alreadybeenestablished that broad characterizations for trauma type affect PTSD presentations (Frans et al., 2005; Hetzel-Riggin & Roby, 2013; Kelley et al., 2009; Lancaster et al., 2014).”
BackgroundSeedat, S., & Suliman, S. (2012) · Elsevier eBooks · doi:10.1016/b978-0-12-384978-6.00085-6
Dirven, B. C. J., van der Geugten, D., van Bodegom, M., Madder, L., van Agen, L., Homberg, J. R., Kozicz, T., & Henckens, M. J. A. G. (2020) · bioRxiv (Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory) · doi:10.1101/2020.10.01.321893
Psychosocial Treatment of Anxiety in Later Life
Ramos, K., & Stanley, M. A. (2021) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/9781139087469.011 · Cited by 1
Writers Talk Featuring Mignon Fogarty
Fogarty, M. (2009) · The Knowledge Bank (The Ohio State University)
David, O. P., Dammeyer, J., & Yakubu, I. (2021) · Social Sciences · doi:10.3390/socsci10110428 · Cited by 1
“Conversely, the present study did not support other similar studies, which reported gender differences regarding PTSD (Ainamani et al. 2020; Ditlevsen and Elklit 2010; Elklit et al. 2012; Frans et al. 2005; Johansen et al. 2007; Idemudia et al. 2013; Olff et al. 2007; Sheikh et al. 2016).”
ResultPosttraumatiska symtom och upplevd livskvalitet hos kvinnor utsatta för sexuellt våld
Söderberg, Å. (2010) · KTH Publication Database DiVA (KTH Royal Institute of Technology)
Sheikh, U., Amin, H., & Nosheen, F. (2021) · Pakistan Journal of Social Research · doi:10.52567/pjsr.v3i3.240
(2013) · CRC Press eBooks · doi:10.1201/b15462-35
Alisic, E. (2008) · Psychologie & gezondheid · doi:10.1007/bf03077495
Böttche, M., Kuwert, P., & Knaevelsrud, C. (2022) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-3-662-64057-9_26
Documentation of Torture and Mental (Psychiatric) Findings
Can, İ. Ö., Ulaş, H., & Göçeoğlu, Ü. Ü. (2016) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-3-319-08359-9_105
Schlünzen, J., Kulla, P., & Kruse, J. (2022) · doi:10.31234/osf.io/qhjeu
Dissociation and psychosis and their relation with trauma
Panfil, A.-L., Jepsen, E. K. K., Hurmuz, M., Munteanu, R., Bredicean, C. A., & Nirestean, A. P. (2019) · Romanian Journal of Psychiatry & Psychotherapy · doi:10.37897/rjpp.2019.2.1
Al‐Shdaifat, A., Tarifi, A. A., Abed-Ellelah, A.-E., Colton, B., & Taha, H. A. (2023) · Jordan Medical Journal · doi:10.35516/jmj.v57i4.2063
Dickey, S. L., Noël, L. T., & Ai, A. L. (2024) · International Journal of Higher Education · doi:10.5430/ijhe.v13n2p23
Zenker, M. (2024) · doi:10.5194/egusphere-2024-725-ac1
Zenker, M. (2024) · doi:10.5194/egusphere-2024-725-ac2
Glavač, T., Poštuvan, V., Schmeckenbecher, J., & Kapusta, N. D. (2024) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2024.1440013 · Cited by 2
Benuto, L. T., Cao-Noya, J. A., Duda, N., Ramirez, V., & Leany, B. D. (2025) · Journal of Aggression Maltreatment & Trauma · doi:10.1080/10926771.2024.2447701
“It is worth noting that although most individuals who have PTSD have experienced more than a singular instance of trauma (e.g., Frans et al., 2005; Kilpatrick et al., 2013), the development of PTSD symptomatology and its content is commonly linked to a specific event (American Psychiatric…”
Trauma-Oriented Medical Care: Bridging Medicine and Psychotherapy
Kruszyńska, N., & Kaminska, Z. (2024) · European Journal of Health Policy Humanization of Care and Medical Ethics · doi:10.21697/ejhp.0306.04
“Epidemiological studies reveal that over 70% of the general population is exposed to stressors that could potentially lead to post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD; Frans et al., 2005; Kessler, 2017).”
Spectrum of Orthopedic Emergencies in a Tertiary Center, North-Eastern Nigeria: A 5-Year Appraisal
Yusuf, S., Ibrahim, S. S., Musa, A., Shirama, Y. B., Ibrahim, A. S., Ahmad, A. J., & James, K. W. (2025) · Journal of Biosciences and Medicines · doi:10.4236/jbm.2025.134039
Volumetric Differences of Thalamic Nuclei are Associated with Post-Trauma PsychopathologyPreprint
Steele, N., Hussain, A. T., Baird, C. L., Haswell, C. C., Sun, D., Rangel-Jimenez, L., Abdallah, C. G., Angstadt, M., May, G., Berg, H. E., et al. (2025) · bioRxiv (Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory) · doi:10.1101/2025.07.24.666644
Hudson, C. C., Rutter, L. A., Joormann, J., Passell, E. J., McKemey, R. M., House, S. L., Beaudoin, F. L., An, X., Stevens, J. S., Neylan, T. C., et al. (2025) · Clinical Psychological Science · doi:10.1177/21677026251356428
“The vast majority of adults will experience a traumatic event in their lifetime (Frans et al., 2005; Sledjeski et al., 2008).”
A single glucocorticoid response element regulates sociability in a sex-specific manner
Corbett, B. F., Arner, J., Luz, S., Yan, J. H., Castro-Vildosola, J., Hala, T. J., Taylor, D. M., & Bhatnagar, S. (2025) · Molecular Psychiatry · doi:10.1038/s41380-025-03158-y
Voigt, J. D., Tendler, A., Marci, C. D., & Carpenter, L. L. (2025) · Healthcare · doi:10.3390/healthcare13192388
“Approximately 5–9% of people exposed to a traumatic event will go on to develop post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) [1].”
Werder, S., Kupferer, K., & Kent, M. (2025) · Neuropsychiatric Disease and Treatment · doi:10.2147/ndt.s521257
Tadros, M. (2008) · UPT. Syiah Kuala University Library (Syiah Kuala University)
Deen, H., Notebaert, L., Bockstaele, B. V., Clarke, P., & Todd, J. (2022) · Figshare · doi:10.6084/m9.figshare.19759997
Ho-Fung, C., Andersson, E. P., Hsuan-Ying, H., Acharya, G., & Schwank, S. E. (2022) · Figshare · doi:10.6084/m9.figshare.19451239
Deen, H., Notebaert, L., Bockstaele, B. V., Clarke, P., & Todd, J. (2022) · Figshare · doi:10.6084/m9.figshare.19759994
Bergman, Y. S., & Weissberger, G. H. (2025) · Personality and Individual Differences · doi:10.1016/j.paid.2025.113619
Travma Sonrası Bilişsel Yüklemenin Cinsiyet ve Kişilik Özellikleri Açısından İncelenmesi
Çağlar, A. (2025) · Batı anadolu eğitim bilimleri dergisi · doi:10.51460/baebd.1538786
Posttraumatic Stress Disorder and Aggression: The Role of Emotion Regulation
Potter, M. R., Morabito, D. M., & Schmidt, N. B. (2026) · Journal of Interpersonal Violence · doi:10.1177/08862605251414433
A REVIEW ON POST-TRAUMATIC STRESS DISORDER
Yeğenağa, E., & Karaaziz, M. (2026) · Türkiye Bütüncül Psikoterapi Dergisi · doi:10.56955/bpd.1616209
Öcal, F., Şimşek, E., Talmaç, A. G. Ö., & Zayman, E. P. (2026) · İnönü Üniversitesi Sağlık Hizmetleri Meslek Yüksek Okulu Dergisi · doi:10.33715/inonusaglik.1753242
Underdiagnosis of PTSD in eating disorders?
Brewerton, T. D. (2026) · Psychiatry Research · doi:10.1016/j.psychres.2026.117123
Galmiche, M. C. (2019) · theses.fr (ABES) · doi:10.70675/86478abdzfb8bz4442z8e08z65e991beb2b0
Karlsson, A., Bäccman, C., Hallerbäck, M. U., & Støre, S. J. (2026) · European Journal of Trauma & Dissociation · doi:10.1016/j.ejtd.2026.100685
Rowe, C., Li, A. C. M., Gillard, S., Attanayake, V., Desai, S., Howell, J., Peeren, S., Sweeney, A., Etwaria, R., Alyce, S., et al. (2026) · Trauma Violence & Abuse · doi:10.1177/15248380261429514
Chapter 13. Specific Needs of Submarginalized Populations
Clegg, K. A., & Sobowale, K. (2024) · American Psychiatric Association Publishing eBooks · doi:10.1176/appi.books.9780873182539.lg13
Threatened, mobilised, distrustful: social trust among young people in Ukraine’s war context
Tamilina, L. (2026) · International Journal of Sociology · doi:10.1080/00207659.2026.2678202
“Psychological issues in turn induce withdrawal, reducing one’s willingness to engage in cooperative interactions, and hence undermine individuals’ trust (Frans et al. 2005).”
Morris, C., & Arbuckle, J. G. (2026) · Frontiers in Sustainable Food Systems · doi:10.3389/fsufs.2026.1844280
Boland, A., Reyes, L. D., Black, J., Serrano, K., McLean, S. A., & Short, N. A. (2026) · Journal of Mood and Anxiety Disorders · doi:10.1016/j.xjmad.2026.100191
Whelan, E., Griffin, S. M., Ahern, E., Lebedová, A., McMahon, G., Bradshaw, D., & Muldoon, O. T. (2026) · Campbell Systematic Reviews · doi:10.1177/18911803261471160
“…combat exposure, childhood neglect, childhood physical abuse, sexual moles-tation, and physical assault, are associated with the highest rates of PTSD (Alisic et al., 2014; American Psychiatric Association, 2013; Charuvastra & Cloitre, 2008; Cloitre et al., 2019; Frans et al., 2005; Kessler, 1995).”
Ray, D., Crawford, P., & Baker, C. (2026) · Psychological Reports · doi:10.1177/00332941261473849
Bondjers, K., Willebrand, M., & Arnberg, F. K. (2026) · European Journal of Psychotraumatology · doi:10.1080/20008066.2026.2705788
“The distribution of event types in this sample is similar to the distribution of potentially traumatic events in the population (Frans et al., 2005; Kessler et al., 2017).”
Lashani, E., Fonagy, P., Riedl, D., Kampling, H., Kruse, J., Lampe, A., Engert, V., Montague, P. R., Brähler, E., Fegert, J. M., et al. (2026) · Translational Psychiatry · doi:10.1038/s41398-026-04442-3 · Cited by 3
“Within interpersonal trauma, literature consistently indicates that intentional trauma, i.e., harm deliberately in fl icted by another person (e.g., physical or sexual abuse), is particularly likely to lead to PTSD [44, 51, 52] and cPTSD [41, 42].”
Erbay, Z., & Hazal, A. Y. A. S. (2025) · Nesne Psikoloji Dergisi · doi:10.7816/nesne-13-35-01
Facer-Irwin, E., Short, R., Murphy, D., Onuch, O., Hale, H. E., Kulyk, V., Biscoe, N., Sasse, G., & MacManus, D. (2026) · European Journal of Psychotraumatology · doi:10.1080/20008066.2026.2697563 · Cited by 1
“The global point prevalence of PTSD in war affected adults is estimated at 26.5% (Hoppen et al., 2021), compared to estimates of 10% or less in general population samples (Frans et al., 2005; Kessler et al., 2017).”
InfluentialLindegren, S., & Jacobsson, M. (2026) · Violence Against Women · doi:10.1177/10778012261497242
Damaged? Not Me: Women's Lived Experience of Growth Following Multiple Traumas
Renny, K. (2014) · Libraries and Cultural Resources (University of Calgary) · doi:10.11575/prism/25514
Metadata
- Authors
- Frans, Ö., Rimmö, P. ‐., Åberg, L., & Fredrikson, M.
- Affiliations
- Uppsala University (SE)
- Dalarna University (SE)
- Corresponding author
- Frans, Ö.
- ORCID
- Fredrikson, M.
- Venue
- Acta Psychiatrica Scandinavica
- Publisher
- Wiley
- Published
- 2005-03
- Volume
- 111
- Issue
- 4
- Pages
- 291-290
- ISSN
- 0001-690X (ISSN-L)
- 1600-0447
- OpenAlex
- W2139994007
- Cited by
- 580
- References
- 59
- Citations by year
- 2026: 20 · 2025: 31 · 2024: 26 · 2023: 27 · 2022: 33 · 2021: 24 · 2020: 31 · 2019: 39 · 2018: 31 · 2017: 39 · 2016: 20 · 2015: 32 · 2014: 28 · 2013: 32 · 2012: 27
- FWCI
- 26.23
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- bronze
- doi.org
- Locations
- Acta Psychiatrica Scandinavica (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Clinical Psychology › Posttraumatic Stress Disorder Research
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Clinical Psychology › Child Abuse and Trauma
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Clinical Psychology › Migration, Health and Trauma
- Keywords
- post-traumatic stress disorder, trauma exposure, lifetime prevalence, gender differences, sexual assault, physical assault, robbery, polytrauma, perceived distress, general population
- MeSH terms
- Adolescent, Adult, Aged, Crime, Cross-Sectional Studies, Female, Humans, Life Change Events, Male, Middle Aged, Surveys and Questionnaires, Recurrence, Risk, Sex Offenses, Sex Ratio, Statistics as Topic, Stress Disorders, Post-Traumatic, Sweden, Violence
About these checks
Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.
Statistics and arithmetic are recomputed, not judged.
Confidence bands are shown only for fields calibrated on our annotated test set. None is calibrated yet, so no band is shown.
What counts as a claim ›How we measure confidence ›How we check this ›
Are you an author, or do you see a problem with this page? Request a review
