The DOI matches its Crossref record; 97 of the 97 references it cites were found in a registry or an index; 1 of the 24 sources its claims cite were checked for support.
Culture and Identity‐Protective Cognition: Explaining the White‐Male Effect in Risk Perception
Open accessAbstract
Why do white men fear various risks less than women and minorities? Known as the “white‐male effect,” this pattern is well documented but poorly understood. This article proposes a new explanation: identity‐protective cognition. Putting work on the cultural theory of risk together with work on motivated cognition in social psychology suggests that individuals selectively credit and dismiss asserted dangers in a manner supportive of their cultural identities. This dynamic, it is hypothesized, drives the white‐male effect, which reflects the risk skepticism that hierarchical and individualistic white males display when activities integral to their cultural identities are challenged as harmful. The article presents the results of an 1,800‐person study that confirmed that cultural worldviews interact with the impact of gender and race on risk perception in patterns that suggest cultural‐identity‐protective cognition. It also discusses the implications of these findings for risk regulation and communication.
Overview
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Written from the paper’s full text.
TL;DR
The paper proposes identity-protective cognition to explain the “white male effect” in risk perception: cultural worldviews shape risk assessments in ways that defend identities. In a 1,844-person U.S. survey, cultural worldviews strongly predicted environmental, gun, and abortion risk perceptions, and the white-male effect was culture-specific, largely attributable to hierarchical and individualistic white men.
Key findings
- The sample displayed the conventional white-male effect: white males were significantly less concerned about each risk evaluated. In Table 1, for example, hierarchical white males versus everyone else scored 2.66 vs. 3.02 on environmental risk, 2.13 vs. 2.47 on gun risk, and 2.61 vs. 2.92 on abortion risk.
- Cultural worldviews strongly predicted risk perceptions. For environmental risks, adding Individualism and Hierarchy increased explanatory power by about 20%; Hierarchy had the largest single effect, and the combined worldview variables explained over nine times as much variance as education and over three times as much as gender. For gun risks, worldview measures increased explanatory power by over 50% and combined explained almost 5 times as much variance as gender, 34 times as much as education, and 17 times as much as rural residence. For abortion risks, hierarchical worldview predicted greater concern and individualistic worldview predicted less; cultural scales added about 10% explanatory power and had a combined effect nearly five times that of education and almost double that of party affiliation and ideology combined.
- The white-male effect was culture-specific. Differences between white males and others were pronounced among hierarchical respondents for each risk and among individualists for every risk but abortion; they were muted or nonsignificant among egalitarian and communitarian respondents for gun and abortion risks. In environmental regressions, adding a “Hierarchical White Male” dummy made Female, Black, and Other Minority nonsignificant, confirming the white-male effect was attributable entirely to hierarchical white males. In gun regressions, the Female coefficient became nonsignificant after adding hierarchical and individualistic white-male dummies. In abortion regressions, adding a “Hierarchical White Female” dummy made Female nonsignificant.
- Anomalous finding: being African-American remained a significant predictor of greater abortion-risk concern even after cultural worldviews were controlled for; the paper calls its explanation conjectural and says it merits additional investigation.
Methods
- Nationwide random-digit-dial telephone survey conducted June–September 2004 with 1,844 U.S. residents aged 18 or older, including an oversample of 242 African-Americans. Sample included 519 white male, 707 white female, 153 black male, and 254 black female subjects; mean age was 39; average household income was between $40,000 and $50,000; average interview length was about 21 minutes; response rate was 42% and cooperation rate 59%.
- Cultural worldviews were measured with 32 items forming Communitarianism-Individualism (α = .77) and Egalitarianism-Hierarchy (α = .81) scales. Risk perceptions were measured for environmental risks (α = .72), gun risks (α = .83), and abortion risk via agreement with “Women who get abortions are putting their health in danger.” Other measures included demographics, sensation-seeking, religion, political ideology, and party affiliation.
- Analysis used group means and multivariate regressions with interaction terms and dummy variables for cultural-demographic groups. Missing data were imputed through multiple imputation with Stata’s MICE module, generating five imputed data sets. The sample had sufficient power to detect small effects (e.g., r = .10) at p = .01 in anticipated multivariate regressions.
Limitations
- The paper states its proof is “admittedly indirect” and calls for future experimental methods to corroborate the findings. It also says the mode of proof does not rule out alternative or supplemental mechanisms, including affect, biased assimilation, availability bias, and in-group/out-group dynamics such as naïve realism, reactive devaluation, and group polarization.
- The paper describes the African-American abortion-risk finding as the primary anomalous result and says its proposed explanation is “obviously conjectural” and merits additional investigation.
- Evident from the text: the study is a cross-sectional telephone survey with a 42% response rate and 59% cooperation rate, relying on self-reported attitudes; the African-American oversample was excluded from the Table 1 analysis to avoid overweighting African-Americans relative to white women and other minorities.
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Claims the paper makes
57 Own result · 52 Own interpretation · 6 Sources not found · 6 Not checked yet · 5 No basis given · 4 Own method · 1 Supported so far · 1 No full text of the sources
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“We find that individuals are disposed selectively to accept or dismiss risk claims in a manner that expresses their cultural values.”
§ Culture and Identity-Protective Cognition: Explaining the White Male Effect in Risk Perception > Abstract
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
- The authors state this as an assumption: The distribution of risk perceptions across persons can yield insight about the formation of those perceptions.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The significance of Female_x_Hierarchy shows that there was an interaction between gender and the grid or Egalitarianism-Hierarchy dimension of worldview.”
§ Culture and Identity-Protective Cognition: Explaining the White Male Effect in Risk Perception > A. Preliminary Analysis: Comparison of Mean Risk Perceptions
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
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A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“When risk-perceptions were examined for groups defined by combinations of demographic characteristics and cultural worldviews, the “white male effect” turned out to be highly culture specific (Table 1, Figure 4).”
§ Culture and Identity-Protective Cognition: Explaining the White Male Effect in Risk Perception > A. Preliminary Analysis: Comparison of Mean Risk Perceptions
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The relative concerns of white females and male and female nonwhites varied across risks.”
§ Culture and Identity-Protective Cognition: Explaining the White Male Effect in Risk Perception > A. Preliminary Analysis: Comparison of Mean Risk Perceptions
plaincorrelationaln = 1,844- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Indeed, the significant influence of being African-American on risk perception disappeared once cultural orientation was taken into account.”
§ Culture and Identity-Protective Cognition: Explaining the White Male Effect in Risk Perception > A. Preliminary Analysis: Comparison of Mean Risk Perceptions
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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In the paper
“Gender remained a significant predictor after cultural worldviews were taken into account.”
§ Culture and Identity-Protective Cognition: Explaining the White Male Effect in Risk Perception > A. Preliminary Analysis: Comparison of Mean Risk Perceptions
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“Rather, as the positive coefficient associated with Female_x_Hierarchy conveys (Aiken & West, 1991;Jaccard & Potter, 1998), women discounted environmental risk less than men as their respective orientations became more hierarchical.”
§ Culture and Identity-Protective Cognition: Explaining the White Male Effect in Risk Perception > A. Preliminary Analysis: Comparison of Mean Risk Perceptions
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Aiken & West, 1991
- Not matchedcites Jaccard & Potter, 1998
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“For individualists, differences in the perceptions of white males and others were pronounced for evey risk but abortion.”
§ Culture and Identity-Protective Cognition: Explaining the White Male Effect in Risk Perception > A. Preliminary Analysis: Comparison of Mean Risk Perceptions
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The difference between the mean risk perceptions of white men those of white females and minorities was pronounced among persons subscribing to hierarchical worldviews for each of the risks examined.”
§ Culture and Identity-Protective Cognition: Explaining the White Male Effect in Risk Perception > A. Preliminary Analysis: Comparison of Mean Risk Perceptions
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The article presents the results of an 1,800-person study that confirmed that cultural worldviews interact with the impact of gender and race on risk perception in patterns that suggest cultural-identity-protective cognition.”
§ Culture and Identity-Protective Cognition: Explaining the White Male Effect in Risk Perception > Abstract
hedgedcorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
- The authors state this as an assumption: The distribution of risk perceptions across persons can yield insight about the formation of those perceptions.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Consistent with our hypothesis, the nonsignificance of Fe-male_x_Individualism suggests that the impact of a progressively individualistic worldview on environmental risk perception cannot be confidently said to differ by gender.”
§ Culture and Identity-Protective Cognition: Explaining the White Male Effect in Risk Perception > A. Preliminary Analysis: Comparison of Mean Risk Perceptions
hedged- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Our sample displayed the conventional “white male effect” (Figure 2).White males were significantly less concerned about each risk evaluated in the study.”
§ Culture and Identity-Protective Cognition: Explaining the White Male Effect in Risk Perception > A. Preliminary Analysis: Comparison of Mean Risk Perceptions
plaincorrelationaln = 1,844 ·- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Adding Individualism and Hierarchy increased the explanatory power of Model 2 by approximately 20%.”
§ Culture and Identity-Protective Cognition: Explaining the White Male Effect in Risk Perception > A. Preliminary Analysis: Comparison of Mean Risk Perceptions
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
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In the paper
“In other words, variance along this dimension of worldview did not exert the same influence on men's and women's respective perceptions of environmental risk.”
§ Culture and Identity-Protective Cognition: Explaining the White Male Effect in Risk Perception > A. Preliminary Analysis: Comparison of Mean Risk Perceptions
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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In the paper
“Together the worldview measures increased the explanatory power of Model 2 by over 50%.”
§ Culture and Identity-Protective Cognition: Explaining the White Male Effect in Risk Perception > 2. Gun Risks
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“and race both predicted the perception that guns are dangerous, as did being Jewish or Catholic, and degree of education, whereas both residing in an rural (as opposed an urban) environment and a taste for risk-taking predicted the perception that guns are safe.”
§ Culture and Identity-Protective Cognition: Explaining the White Male Effect in Risk Perception > Acknowledgements
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“As shown in Model 3, Female_x_Hierarchy was statistically significant, confirming that gender interacted with the grid or Egalitarianism-Hierarchy dimension of worldview.”
§ Culture and Identity-Protective Cognition: Explaining the White Male Effect in Risk Perception > Model 5 tests for significant interactions between demographic characteristics and cultural
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In the paper
“These effects were all large, moreover, relative to that of other individual characteristics that might be thought to bear on risk perception, including other group affiliations (such as political party affiliation and religion)”
§ Culture and Identity-Protective Cognition: Explaining the White Male Effect in Risk Perception > A. Summary of Key Findings
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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In the paper
“As the table shows, Female was nonsignificant.”
§ Culture and Identity-Protective Cognition: Explaining the White Male Effect in Risk Perception > High Low
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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In the paper
“Figure 7 illustrates the nature of this effect: variation along the Hierarchy-Egalitarian dimension of cultural worldview affects white women more dramatically than it does white men or African-American men or women.”
§ Culture and Identity-Protective Cognition: Explaining the White Male Effect in Risk Perception > Model 5 tests for significant interactions between demographic characteristics and cultural
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“and race both predicted the perception that guns are dangerous, as did being Jewish or Catholic, and degree of education, whereas both residing in an rural (as opposed an urban) environment and a taste for risk-taking predicted the perception that guns are safe.”
§ Culture and Identity-Protective Cognition: Explaining the White Male Effect in Risk Perception > Acknowledgements
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
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The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Women and minorities are more fearful of various risks.”
§ Culture and Identity-Protective Cognition: Explaining the White Male Effect in Risk Perception > V. Conclusion
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A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“and race both predicted the perception that guns are dangerous, as did being Jewish or Catholic, and degree of education, whereas both residing in an rural (as opposed an urban) environment and a taste for risk-taking predicted the perception that guns are safe.”
§ Culture and Identity-Protective Cognition: Explaining the White Male Effect in Risk Perception > Acknowledgements
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
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The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Hierarchy more powerfully disposed white women to perceive danger in abortion.”
§ Culture and Identity-Protective Cognition: Explaining the White Male Effect in Risk Perception > A. Summary of Key Findings
boosteddirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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In the paper
“However, its sign had flipped, indicating that being African-American weakly predicted the perception that guns are safe once cultural orientation was taken into account.”
§ Culture and Identity-Protective Cognition: Explaining the White Male Effect in Risk Perception > 2. Gun Risks
hedgedcorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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In the paper
“Model 4 discloses a borderline significant (p = .07)three-way interaction: Fe-male_x_Hierarchy_x_Black.”
§ Culture and Identity-Protective Cognition: Explaining the White Male Effect in Risk Perception > Model 5 tests for significant interactions between demographic characteristics and cultural
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Consistent with this hypothesis, the coefficient for Female_x_Individualism is nonsignificant (p = .314).”
§ Culture and Identity-Protective Cognition: Explaining the White Male Effect in Risk Perception > Model 5 tests for significant interactions between demographic characteristics and cultural
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The primary anomalous finding was the strong relationship between race and abortion risk perception.”
§ Culture and Identity-Protective Cognition: Explaining the White Male Effect in Risk Perception > 2. African-American Abortion Risk Perceptions
boostedcorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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In the paper
“When cultural orientations were controlled for, being African-American no longer displayed greater apprehension about either environmental risks or gun risks.”
§ Culture and Identity-Protective Cognition: Explaining the White Male Effect in Risk Perception > A. Summary of Key Findings
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Intriguingly, being African-American reemerged as a weak but significant influence in Model 4.”
§ Culture and Identity-Protective Cognition: Explaining the White Male Effect in Risk Perception > 2. Gun Risks
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The positive coefficient associated with that variable indicated that as their respective worldviews became more hierarchical, female respondents became more concerned about abortion risks than did male respondents.”
§ Culture and Identity-Protective Cognition: Explaining the White Male Effect in Risk Perception > Model 5 tests for significant interactions between demographic characteristics and cultural
hedgedcorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“and race both predicted the perception that guns are dangerous, as did being Jewish or Catholic, and degree of education, whereas both residing in an rural (as opposed an urban) environment and a taste for risk-taking predicted the perception that guns are safe.”
§ Culture and Identity-Protective Cognition: Explaining the White Male Effect in Risk Perception > Acknowledgements
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The respondents inclined to see guns as safest of all were hierarchical and individualistic white men.”
§ Culture and Identity-Protective Cognition: Explaining the White Male Effect in Risk Perception > A. Summary of Key Findings
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Each type of risk perception had the hypothesized relationship with cultural worldviews.”
§ Culture and Identity-Protective Cognition: Explaining the White Male Effect in Risk Perception > A. Summary of Key Findings
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Indeed, the effect sizes of these variables were relatively large and completely subsumed the effects associated with race in Model 1.”
§ Culture and Identity-Protective Cognition: Explaining the White Male Effect in Risk Perception > Acknowledgements
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Model 2 adds political ideology and party affiliation: not surprisingly, conservatism predicted the belief that guns are safe, while Democratic party affiliation predicted the belief that guns are dangerous.”
§ Culture and Identity-Protective Cognition: Explaining the White Male Effect in Risk Perception > Acknowledgements
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The coefficient for Female is nonsignificant.”
§ Culture and Identity-Protective Cognition: Explaining the White Male Effect in Risk Perception > Additional information
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“and race both predicted the perception that guns are dangerous, as did being Jewish or Catholic, and degree of education, whereas both residing in an rural (as opposed an urban) environment and a taste for risk-taking predicted the perception that guns are safe.”
§ Culture and Identity-Protective Cognition: Explaining the White Male Effect in Risk Perception > Acknowledgements
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Model 2 adds political ideology and party affiliation: not surprisingly, conservatism predicted the belief that guns are safe, while Democratic party affiliation predicted the belief that guns are dangerous.”
§ Culture and Identity-Protective Cognition: Explaining the White Male Effect in Risk Perception > Acknowledgements
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Consistent with our hypotheses, Model 2 shows that respondents became more concerned about abortion risks as their worldviews became more hierarchical, and less concerned as their worldviews became more individualistic.”
§ Culture and Identity-Protective Cognition: Explaining the White Male Effect in Risk Perception > Additional information
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
In the paper
“(Not surprisingly (Sullins, 1999), relative to Protestantism Catholicism did not significantly predict greater perception of abortion risk.).”
§ Culture and Identity-Protective Cognition: Explaining the White Male Effect in Risk Perception > Additional information
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Sullins, 1999 source
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Consistent with our hypotheses, Model 2 shows that respondents became more concerned about abortion risks as their worldviews became more hierarchical, and less concerned as their worldviews became more individualistic.”
§ Culture and Identity-Protective Cognition: Explaining the White Male Effect in Risk Perception > Additional information
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Together, the cultural orientation scales added approximately 10% to the explanatory power of the model.”
§ Culture and Identity-Protective Cognition: Explaining the White Male Effect in Risk Perception > Additional information
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“These results are consistent with the hypothesized influence of identityprotective cognition on environmental risk perceptions.”
§ Culture and Identity-Protective Cognition: Explaining the White Male Effect in Risk Perception > A. Preliminary Analysis: Comparison of Mean Risk Perceptions
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
- Rests on an assumption: Cultural worldviews exert a causal influence on risk perceptions rather than merely being correlated with them.
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“The motivational effect of group membership on information processing is most easily explained by the inference that individuals do have a profound emotional and psychic investment in seeing their groups beliefs confirmed (Giner-Sorolla & Chaiken, 1997;Chen, Duckworth & Chaiken, 1999).”
§ Culture and Identity-Protective Cognition: Explaining the White Male Effect in Risk Perception > B. Identity-Protective Cognition
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites Giner-Sorolla & Chaiken, 1997
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Chen, Duckworth & Chaiken, 1999 source
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: unclear — It is unclear whether it could be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
- Not matched
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Other groups, including women and African Americans as well as white men holding egalitarian and communitarian worldviews, also face cultural-identity threats that generate distinctive patterns of risk perception.”
§ Culture and Identity-Protective Cognition: Explaining the White Male Effect in Risk Perception > Abstract
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
- The authors state this as an assumption: The distribution of risk perceptions across persons can yield insight about the formation of those perceptions.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“This pattern, too, conformed to the anticipated influence of group-grid cultural dispositions.”
§ Culture and Identity-Protective Cognition: Explaining the White Male Effect in Risk Perception > A. Preliminary Analysis: Comparison of Mean Risk Perceptions
plaincorrelationaln = 1,844 ·- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“In other words, race variance in environmental risk perceptions was attributable to the disproportionately egalitarian and communitarian worldviews of African-Americans.”
§ Culture and Identity-Protective Cognition: Explaining the White Male Effect in Risk Perception > A. Preliminary Analysis: Comparison of Mean Risk Perceptions
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
- Rests on an assumption: Cultural worldviews exert a causal influence on risk perceptions rather than merely being correlated with them.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“This result confirms that the white male effect for environmental risks observed in the sample as a whole was, as hypothesized, attributable in its entirety to the extreme risk skepticism that hierarchical commitments induce in white males.”
§ Culture and Identity-Protective Cognition: Explaining the White Male Effect in Risk Perception > A. Preliminary Analysis: Comparison of Mean Risk Perceptions
boosteddirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
- Rests on an assumption: Cultural worldviews exert a causal influence on risk perceptions rather than merely being correlated with them.
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“By supplying a psychological mechanism rooted in individuals' perceptions of their own interests, identityprotective cognition extricates cultural theory from the well known difficulties that plague functionalist accounts (Boudon, 1998;Balkin, 1998, pp. 176-80).”
§ Culture and Identity-Protective Cognition: Explaining the White Male Effect in Risk Perception > C. Synthesis: Cultural-Identity-Protective Risk Perception
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Boudon, 1998 source
- Not matchedcites Balkin, 1998
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“We propose that variance in risk perceptions-across persons generally, and across race and gender in particular⎯reflects a form of motivated cognition through which people seek to deflect threats to identities they hold, and roles they occupy, by virtue of contested cultural norms.”
§ Culture and Identity-Protective Cognition: Explaining the White Male Effect in Risk Perception > I. Theoretical Background: Culture, Risk, and Identity Threat
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: unclear — It is unclear why the paper says it holds.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The insensitivity to risk reflected in the white male effect can thus be seen as a defensive response to a form of cultural identity threat that afflicts hierarchical and individualistic white males.”
§ Culture and Identity-Protective Cognition: Explaining the White Male Effect in Risk Perception > Abstract
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
- The authors state this as an assumption: The distribution of risk perceptions across persons can yield insight about the formation of those perceptions.
In the paper
“Our sample of 1,844 respondents had sufficient statistical power to detect small effect sizes (e.g., r = .10)at a significance criterion of .01 in all anticipated multivariate regression analyses (Cohen, 1988).”
§ Culture and Identity-Protective Cognition: Explaining the White Male Effect in Risk Perception > 2. Power
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites Cohen, 1988
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
plainn = 1,844- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
- Not matched
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Similar dynamics explain gender and race disparities in risk perception.”
§ Culture and Identity-Protective Cognition: Explaining the White Male Effect in Risk Perception > V. Conclusion
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
- Rests on an assumption: Cultural worldviews exert a causal influence on risk perceptions rather than merely being correlated with them.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“But it does so in a more even-handed way than had been previously realized.”
§ Culture and Identity-Protective Cognition: Explaining the White Male Effect in Risk Perception > V. Conclusion
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Where the activities associated with those risks are conspicuously emblematic of one cultural worldview or another, identity-protective cognition will induce individuals to credit or dismiss scientific information depending on its congeniality to their cultural norms.”
§ Culture and Identity-Protective Cognition: Explaining the White Male Effect in Risk Perception > 2. Risk Communication
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
- Rests on an assumption: Cultural worldviews exert a causal influence on risk perceptions rather than merely being correlated with them.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“All of the gender and race variance with respect to this attitude, we found, was attributable to hierarchical white men.”
§ Culture and Identity-Protective Cognition: Explaining the White Male Effect in Risk Perception > A. Summary of Key Findings
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
- Rests on an assumption: Cultural worldviews exert a causal influence on risk perceptions rather than merely being correlated with them.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Similarly, being male predicts less fear of gun risks conditional on holding either a hierarchical or an individualistic worldview.”
§ Culture and Identity-Protective Cognition: Explaining the White Male Effect in Risk Perception > A. Summary of Key Findings
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
- Rests on an assumption: Cultural worldviews exert a causal influence on risk perceptions rather than merely being correlated with them.
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“Researchers have shown that individuals who are either personally affirmed or exposed to group-affirming stimuli thereafter display less bias when processing information that is contrary to beliefs dominantly held by their peers (Cohen, 2000;Sherman & Cohen, 2002;Cohen et al., in press).”
§ Culture and Identity-Protective Cognition: Explaining the White Male Effect in Risk Perception > 2. Risk Communication
What the sources say
boosteddirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“But as we hypothesized, because individualistic norms treat commercial and professional roles as status-enhancing for both men and women, an individualistic orientation disposed respondents to risk skepticism without regard to gender.”
§ Culture and Identity-Protective Cognition: Explaining the White Male Effect in Risk Perception > A. Summary of Key Findings
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
- Rests on an assumption: Cultural worldviews exert a causal influence on risk perceptions rather than merely being correlated with them.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The influence of gender on both en-vironmental and abortion-risk concerns is conditional on holding a relatively hierarchical outlook.”
§ Culture and Identity-Protective Cognition: Explaining the White Male Effect in Risk Perception > A. Summary of Key Findings
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
- Rests on an assumption: Cultural worldviews exert a causal influence on risk perceptions rather than merely being correlated with them.
In the paper
“As surmised by Douglas and Wildavsky (1982), individuals tend to conform their view of the risks of putatively dangerous activities ⎯ commerce and technology, guns, abortion ⎯ to their cultural evaluations of them.”
§ Culture and Identity-Protective Cognition: Explaining the White Male Effect in Risk Perception > V. Conclusion
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites Douglas and Wildavsky (1982)
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
- Not matched
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“To start, the relationship between cultural worldviews and risk perceptions blurs the line between public assessments of the “risks” and “benefits” of putatively dangerous activities.”
§ Culture and Identity-Protective Cognition: Explaining the White Male Effect in Risk Perception > C. Some Practical Implications
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The impact of cultural worldviews is consistent with the hypothesized relationship between risk perception and cultural-identity-protective cognition.”
§ Culture and Identity-Protective Cognition: Explaining the White Male Effect in Risk Perception > A. Summary of Key Findings
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
- Rests on an assumption: Cultural worldviews exert a causal influence on risk perceptions rather than merely being correlated with them.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The results strongly suggest that it can.”
§ Culture and Identity-Protective Cognition: Explaining the White Male Effect in Risk Perception > A. Summary of Key Findings
boosteddirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
- Rests on an assumption: Cultural worldviews exert a causal influence on risk perceptions rather than merely being correlated with them.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Fear does discriminate.”
§ Culture and Identity-Protective Cognition: Explaining the White Male Effect in Risk Perception > V. Conclusion
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: unclear — It is unclear whether it could be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Hierarchical women are less threatened, and thus less risk skeptical, because their identity is tied to domestic roles.”
§ Culture and Identity-Protective Cognition: Explaining the White Male Effect in Risk Perception > A. Summary of Key Findings
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“In other words (or simply in words), these results show, consistent with our hypotheses, that increasing hierarchical and individualistic worldviews induce greater risk-skepticism in white males than in either white women or male or female nonwhites.”
§ Culture and Identity-Protective Cognition: Explaining the White Male Effect in Risk Perception > Model 5 tests for significant interactions between demographic characteristics and cultural
boosteddirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
- Rests on an assumption: Cultural worldviews exert a causal influence on risk perceptions rather than merely being correlated with them.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Gender affects risk perception only in conjunction with particular worldviews.”
§ Culture and Identity-Protective Cognition: Explaining the White Male Effect in Risk Perception > A. Summary of Key Findings
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
- Rests on an assumption: Cultural worldviews exert a causal influence on risk perceptions rather than merely being correlated with them.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Accordingly, men and women, whites and minorities, form distinct attitudes toward risk in a manner that protects from interference the activities on which their identities depends.”
§ Culture and Identity-Protective Cognition: Explaining the White Male Effect in Risk Perception > V. Conclusion
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
- Rests on an assumption: Cultural worldviews exert a causal influence on risk perceptions rather than merely being correlated with them.
In the paper
“Their extreme risk skepticism makes sense under the cultural theory of risk perception, since their identity is threatened by the indictment of societal and governmental elites implicit in the claim that commerce is hazardous (Douglas & Wildavsky, 1982).”
§ Culture and Identity-Protective Cognition: Explaining the White Male Effect in Risk Perception > A. Summary of Key Findings
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites Douglas & Wildavsky, 1982
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
- Not matched
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“This result, consistent with our hypothesis, confirms that all of the gender-related variance in the sample was attributable to the extreme risk sensitivity associated with being a white female Hierarch.”
§ Culture and Identity-Protective Cognition: Explaining the White Male Effect in Risk Perception > High Low
boosteddirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
- Rests on an assumption: Cultural worldviews exert a causal influence on risk perceptions rather than merely being correlated with them.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“This result is consistent with the hypothesis that identity-protective concerns would induce abortion risk-concern in particular among hierarchical women.”
§ Culture and Identity-Protective Cognition: Explaining the White Male Effect in Risk Perception > Model 5 tests for significant interactions between demographic characteristics and cultural
hedgeddirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
- Rests on an assumption: Cultural worldviews exert a causal influence on risk perceptions rather than merely being correlated with them.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Because it stands the effect of Black observed in Model 1 on its head, this result strikingly confirms that the difference between African-Americans and whites overall derived from the disproportionate commitment of African-Americans to egalitarian and communitarian worldviews.”
§ Culture and Identity-Protective Cognition: Explaining the White Male Effect in Risk Perception > 2. Gun Risks
boosteddirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
- Rests on an assumption: Cultural worldviews exert a causal influence on risk perceptions rather than merely being correlated with them.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Identity-protective cognition also plausibly explains the white male effect for environmental risk perception.”
§ Culture and Identity-Protective Cognition: Explaining the White Male Effect in Risk Perception > A. Summary of Key Findings
hedgedconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
- Rests on an assumption: Cultural worldviews exert a causal influence on risk perceptions rather than merely being correlated with them.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Assertions of environmental risk should pose an identity challenge to relatively individualistic persons, who equate success in the market with personal virtue.”
§ Culture and Identity-Protective Cognition: Explaining the White Male Effect in Risk Perception > A. Summary of Key Findings
hedgeddirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Demographic variance in risk perceptions, we found, grew out of cultural variance.”
§ Culture and Identity-Protective Cognition: Explaining the White Male Effect in Risk Perception > A. Summary of Key Findings
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
- Rests on an assumption: Cultural worldviews exert a causal influence on risk perceptions rather than merely being correlated with them.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Racial disparities were also highly dependent on culture.”
§ Culture and Identity-Protective Cognition: Explaining the White Male Effect in Risk Perception > A. Summary of Key Findings
boostedcorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
- Rests on an assumption: Cultural worldviews exert a causal influence on risk perceptions rather than merely being correlated with them.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“We have supported our central hypotheses by presenting evidence that risk perceptions are distributed across persons in patterns that are most convincingly explained by cultural-identity-protective cognition.”
§ Culture and Identity-Protective Cognition: Explaining the White Male Effect in Risk Perception > B. Outstanding Issues and Questions 1. Experimental Follow-ups
boosteddirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
- Rests on an assumption: Cultural worldviews exert a causal influence on risk perceptions rather than merely being correlated with them.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The influence of cultural worldviews on risk perception demonstrates that it would be a profound mistake to assume that the simple ascertainment and dissemination of empirical truth will lead to public enlightenment on vari-ous societal and personal risks.”
§ Culture and Identity-Protective Cognition: Explaining the White Male Effect in Risk Perception > 2. Risk Communication
boosteddirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: unclear — It is unclear whether it could be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“But the reason they are is that men, particularly individualistic and hierarchical white ones, tend to be more fearful of threat to their identities that would occur were the law to accept that activities essential these individuals' identities are dangerous and worthy of regulation.”
§ Culture and Identity-Protective Cognition: Explaining the White Male Effect in Risk Perception > V. Conclusion
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: unclear — It is unclear why the paper says it holds.
- Rests on an assumption: Cultural worldviews exert a causal influence on risk perceptions rather than merely being correlated with them.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“White hierarchical and individualistic males are by no means the only persons for whom identity threats generate distinctive risk perceptions.”
- Also stated in: § V. Conclusion · plain
“White hierarchical and individualistic men are not the only ones, moreover, impelled toward extreme stances toward risk by identity-protective cognition.”
§ Culture and Identity-Protective Cognition: Explaining the White Male Effect in Risk Perception > A. Summary of Key Findings
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
- Also stated in: § V. Conclusion · plain
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Different ways of life feature distinctive forms of gender and racial differentiation in social roles involving putatively dangerous activities.”
§ Culture and Identity-Protective Cognition: Explaining the White Male Effect in Risk Perception > V. Conclusion
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: unclear — It is unclear why the paper says it holds.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“In keeping with the association of gun ownership with hierarchical and individualistic norms, for example, respondents who held hierarchical and individualistic worldviews were predictably disposed to reject the assertion ⎯ leveled by their egalitarian and communitarian rivals ⎯ that guns are dangerous.”
§ Culture and Identity-Protective Cognition: Explaining the White Male Effect in Risk Perception > A. Summary of Key Findings
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
- Rests on an assumption: Cultural worldviews exert a causal influence on risk perceptions rather than merely being correlated with them.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The phenomenon is ubiquitous.”
§ Culture and Identity-Protective Cognition: Explaining the White Male Effect in Risk Perception > V. Conclusion
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: unclear — It is unclear why the paper says it holds.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Our study complicates this strategy for risk regulation.”
§ Culture and Identity-Protective Cognition: Explaining the White Male Effect in Risk Perception > C. Some Practical Implications
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: unclear — It is unclear whether it could be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“But once the connection between risk perception and cultural worldviews is exposed, it becomes clear that individual tolerance of danger does not reflect a “safety” preference in any straightforward sense.”
§ Culture and Identity-Protective Cognition: Explaining the White Male Effect in Risk Perception > C. Some Practical Implications
boosted- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: unclear — It is unclear whether it could be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Black, however, remained statistically significant, confirming, contrary to expectations, that being an African-American heightens concern about abortion risks independent of cultural worldviews.”
§ Culture and Identity-Protective Cognition: Explaining the White Male Effect in Risk Perception > High Low
boosteddirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Again, the results strongly supported the hypothesis that cultural worldviews exert a strong identity-protective influence on cognition.”
§ Culture and Identity-Protective Cognition: Explaining the White Male Effect in Risk Perception > 2. Gun Risks
boosteddirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
- Rests on an assumption: Cultural worldviews exert a causal influence on risk perceptions rather than merely being correlated with them.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The source of it, we hypothesized and our data support, is a form of motivated cognition aimed at protecting persons' cultural identities.”
§ Culture and Identity-Protective Cognition: Explaining the White Male Effect in Risk Perception > V. Conclusion
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
- Rests on an assumption: Cultural worldviews exert a causal influence on risk perceptions rather than merely being correlated with them.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“These results support the hypothesis that the white male effect with respect to gun risks on the whole is attributable to the extreme impact of hierarchical and individualistic worldviews on white males, who can be expected to adopt a posture of identity-defensive risk skepticism by virtue of the importance of guns for their cultural roles.”
§ Culture and Identity-Protective Cognition: Explaining the White Male Effect in Risk Perception > Additional information
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The coefficients for Black and Other Minority are significant but have negative signs, indicating that being a minority correlates with viewing guns as more safe once the effect of being a hierarchical white or individualistic male is controlled for.”
§ Culture and Identity-Protective Cognition: Explaining the White Male Effect in Risk Perception > Additional information
hedgedcorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“These results support the hypothesis that the white male effect with respect to gun risks on the whole is attributable to the extreme impact of hierarchical and individualistic worldviews on white males, who can be expected to adopt a posture of identity-defensive risk skepticism by virtue of the importance of guns for their cultural roles.”
§ Culture and Identity-Protective Cognition: Explaining the White Male Effect in Risk Perception > Additional information
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Again, these results support the hypothesis that cultural worldviews exert a strong identity-protective influence on cognition.”
§ Culture and Identity-Protective Cognition: Explaining the White Male Effect in Risk Perception > Additional information
boosteddirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
- Probably not a substantial claim. 17
- It may state two separate claims as one. 23
The sources with a verdict support this claim; the rest weren’t checked yet, have no full text we could read, or their verdicts aren’t rated yet.
In the paper
“Missing data were imputed through multiple imputation with Stata using the MICE (multivariate imputation by chained equations) module (Royston, 2004).Five imputed data sets were generated.”
§ Culture and Identity-Protective Cognition: Explaining the White Male Effect in Risk Perception > 3. Missing Data
What the sources say
- Supportedcites Royston, 2004 source
The opening passage (p. 1) identifies Royston’s work as a Stata implementation of MICE and defines MICE as multivariate imputation by chained equations. The Introduction (p. 2) describes five imputed datasets as a traditional choice; the Example (p. 8) generates five with mvis. The citing authors’ statement that they generated five datasets describes their own procedure, rather than a result attributed to Royston. (LLM, conf=0.92)
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites King et al. (2001) source
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Rubin (1987) source
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. It may state two separate claims as one.
- Supported
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Differences in the perceptions of white males and others for all risks were relatively muted among persons holding egalitarian and communitarian worldviews and were nonsignificant with respect to gun risks and abortion risks.”
§ Culture and Identity-Protective Cognition: Explaining the White Male Effect in Risk Perception > A. Preliminary Analysis: Comparison of Mean Risk Perceptions
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“As expected, persons who held relative hierarchical and individualistic outlooks-and particularly both simultaneously-were the least concerned about environmental risks and gun risks, while persons who held relatively egalitarian and communitarian views were most concerned.”
§ Culture and Identity-Protective Cognition: Explaining the White Male Effect in Risk Perception > A. Preliminary Analysis: Comparison of Mean Risk Perceptions
plaincorrelationaln = 1,844 ·- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Each worldview variable was significant and had the predicted sign.”
§ Culture and Identity-Protective Cognition: Explaining the White Male Effect in Risk Perception > A. Preliminary Analysis: Comparison of Mean Risk Perceptions
plaincorrelationaln = 1,602- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“With regard to abortion risks, in contrast, persons who were both relatively hierarchical and communitarian in their views were most concerned; individuals who had an egalitarian outlook, particularly those who qualified as Egalitarian Individualists, were least worried about the risk of abortion for women's health.”
§ Culture and Identity-Protective Cognition: Explaining the White Male Effect in Risk Perception > A. Preliminary Analysis: Comparison of Mean Risk Perceptions
plaincorrelationaln = 1,844 ·- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“When combined, they explain almost 5 times as much variance as gender, 34 times as much as education, and 17 times as much as residing in a rural environment.”
§ Culture and Identity-Protective Cognition: Explaining the White Male Effect in Risk Perception > 2. Gun Risks
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“As predicted, egalitarian and communitarian worldviews predicted the belief that guns are dangerous, while hierarchical and individualistic worldviews predicted the belief that guns are safe.”
§ Culture and Identity-Protective Cognition: Explaining the White Male Effect in Risk Perception > 2. Gun Risks
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Hierarchy and Individualism have the first and second largest effect sizes, respectively, of all the independent variables.”
§ Culture and Identity-Protective Cognition: Explaining the White Male Effect in Risk Perception > 2. Gun Risks
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Those coefficients were not significant.”
§ Culture and Identity-Protective Cognition: Explaining the White Male Effect in Risk Perception > A. Preliminary Analysis: Comparison of Mean Risk Perceptions
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Egalitarian and communitarian worldviews predicted risk-sensitivity, hierarchical and individualistic worldviews risk-skepticism, toward environmental risks.”
§ Culture and Identity-Protective Cognition: Explaining the White Male Effect in Risk Perception > A. Summary of Key Findings
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Hierarchy had the single largest effect of any independent variable, and the combined effect of the two worldview variables explained over nine times as much variance as education, and over three times as much as gender.”
§ Culture and Identity-Protective Cognition: Explaining the White Male Effect in Risk Perception > A. Preliminary Analysis: Comparison of Mean Risk Perceptions
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“There were significant (or borderline significant: p = .07for Fe-male_x_Individualism_x_Black) three-way interactions between gender, the cultural orientation variables, and Black, and between gender, individualism, and Other Minority.”
§ Culture and Identity-Protective Cognition: Explaining the White Male Effect in Risk Perception > Model 5 tests for significant interactions between demographic characteristics and cultural
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Being a woman remained a significant predictor of higher levels of concern about abortion risks, as did being African-American, once worldviews were taken into account in Model 2.”
§ Culture and Identity-Protective Cognition: Explaining the White Male Effect in Risk Perception > Model 5 tests for significant interactions between demographic characteristics and cultural
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Abortion-risk sensitivity, in contrast, grew in proportion to respondents' commitment to a hierarchical worldview but receded in proportion to their commitment to an individualistic as well as an egalitarian one.”
§ Culture and Identity-Protective Cognition: Explaining the White Male Effect in Risk Perception > A. Summary of Key Findings
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“They explained 20 times as much -25-as party affiliation and ideology when combined, and 10 times as much as the religious affiliation variables when combined.”
§ Culture and Identity-Protective Cognition: Explaining the White Male Effect in Risk Perception > 2. Gun Risks
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Which type of gun risks alarmed respondents most also depended on cultural orientation: the more egalitarian and communitarian respondents became, the more concerned they were that insufficient regulation would lead to gun accidents and crime, whereas the more hierarchal and individualistic they became the more worried they were that excessive regulation would undermine the ability of law-abiding”
§ Culture and Identity-Protective Cognition: Explaining the White Male Effect in Risk Perception > A. Summary of Key Findings
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Our data also demonstrated that male and female African Americans were uniformly receptive to environmental risk claims ⎯ and no more so than whites once cultural orientation was controlled for.”
§ Culture and Identity-Protective Cognition: Explaining the White Male Effect in Risk Perception > A. Summary of Key Findings
boosted- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“There no interaction between hierarchical worldviews and gender for African-Americans, and African-Americans on the whole see abortion as more dangerous than whites even after cultural orientation is taken into account.”
§ Culture and Identity-Protective Cognition: Explaining the White Male Effect in Risk Perception > 2. African-American Abortion Risk Perceptions
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The coefficients for Black and Other Minority are significant but have negative signs, indicating that being a minority correlates with viewing guns as more safe once the effect of being a hierarchical white or individualistic male is controlled for.”
§ Culture and Identity-Protective Cognition: Explaining the White Male Effect in Risk Perception > Additional information
hedgedcorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Their combined effect size is nearly five times that of education, almost double that of the combined effect of party affiliation and ideology, and over that of religious affiliations when combined.”
§ Culture and Identity-Protective Cognition: Explaining the White Male Effect in Risk Perception > Additional information
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“Individuals, according to the theory, selectively credit and dismiss claims of societal danger based on whether the putatively hazardous activity is one that defies or instead conforms to their cultural norms.”
§ Culture and Identity-Protective Cognition: Explaining the White Male Effect in Risk Perception > A. The Cultural Theory of Risk
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites Douglas & Wildavsky, 1982
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim.
- Not matched
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The established empirical correlation between membership in cultural groups of these types and beliefs on societal risks constitutes a fertile testing ground for hypotheses about the contribution identity-motivated cognition is making to real-world conflict on issues of tremendous consequence.”
§ Culture and Identity-Protective Cognition: Explaining the White Male Effect in Risk Perception > C. Synthesis: Cultural-Identity-Protective Risk Perception
boostedcorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim.
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“Accordingly, as a means of identity self-defense, individuals conform their appraisals of information in a manner that buttresses beliefs associated with belonging to particular groups (Cohen, Aronson & Steele, 2000;Cohen, 2003;Cohen, Sherman, Bastardi, Hsu, McGoey & Ross, in press).”
§ Culture and Identity-Protective Cognition: Explaining the White Male Effect in Risk Perception > B. Identity-Protective Cognition
What the sources say
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim.
What the paper did — it cites no source for this, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The statements were intended to form (and did form) two reliable scales: Communitarianism-Individualism (α = .77),which is patterned on the group dimension of the Douglas typology; and Egalitarianism-Hierarchy (α = .81),which is patterned on the grid dimension.”
§ Culture and Identity-Protective Cognition: Explaining the White Male Effect in Risk Perception > 3. Abortion Risks
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“If it turns out, then, that perceptions of risk do in fact strongly correlate with individuals' worldviews even after other pertinent individual characteristics are taken into account, that result would supply strong evidence that culture is motivating identity-protective cognition in the way we surmise.”
§ Culture and Identity-Protective Cognition: Explaining the White Male Effect in Risk Perception > A. Overview
hedgedconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: fails — The paper may give no reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper may give no reason why it holds.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The cultural theory of risk, in turn, supplies a vivid and realistic picture of the types of groups and associated beliefs likely to generate identity-protective forms of cognition.”
§ Culture and Identity-Protective Cognition: Explaining the White Male Effect in Risk Perception > C. Synthesis: Cultural-Identity-Protective Risk Perception
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: fails — It may be too vague to check against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. It may be too vague to check against evidence.
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“The cultural theory of risk perception (Douglas & Wildavsky, 1982;Rayner, 1992) asserts that individuals' perceptions of risk reflect and reinforce their commitments to visions of how society should be organized.”
§ Culture and Identity-Protective Cognition: Explaining the White Male Effect in Risk Perception > A. The Cultural Theory of Risk
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites Douglas & Wildavsky, 1982
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Rayner, 1992
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim.
- Not matched
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The cultural theory of risk perception suggests that individuals conform their view of how dangerous an activity is to their moral assessment of it.”
§ Culture and Identity-Protective Cognition: Explaining the White Male Effect in Risk Perception > C. Some Practical Implications
hedgeddirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: fails — The paper may give no reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper may give no reason why it holds.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Accordingly, when expert risk regulators dismiss public estimations of various risks as uninformed, they can just as easily be understood to be discounting the benefits that individuals attach to activities by virtue of their cultural worldviews.”
§ Culture and Identity-Protective Cognition: Explaining the White Male Effect in Risk Perception > C. Some Practical Implications
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: fails — It may be too vague to check against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. It may be too vague to check against evidence.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“But they also expose a host of new practical and moral challenges for reconciling the rational regulation of risk with democratic decisionmaking.”
§ Culture and Identity-Protective Cognition: Explaining the White Male Effect in Risk Perception > V. Conclusion
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: fails — It may be too vague to check against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. It may be too vague to check against evidence.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“These findings solve many long-standing theoretical puzzles about the nature and significance of variance in risk perception.”
§ Culture and Identity-Protective Cognition: Explaining the White Male Effect in Risk Perception > V. Conclusion
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: fails — It may be too vague to check against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. It may be too vague to check against evidence.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“We hypothesized that hierarchical women would be more risk-sensitive insofar as abortion rights are perceived to denigrate hierarchical norms that confer status on women for occupying domestic rather than professional roles.”
§ Culture and Identity-Protective Cognition: Explaining the White Male Effect in Risk Perception > A. Summary of Key Findings
hedgeddirect- Asserted: fails — The authors may not put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: fails — The paper may give no reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The authors may not put it forward as true. The paper may give no reason why it holds.
What the paper did — it cites no source for this, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“This is, however, an admittedly indirect form of proof.”
§ Culture and Identity-Protective Cognition: Explaining the White Male Effect in Risk Perception > B. Outstanding Issues and Questions 1. Experimental Follow-ups
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Their stance of fearlessness is convincingly attributable to identity-protective cognition insofar as they are the persons who need guns the most in order to occupy social roles and display individual virtues within their cultural communities.”
§ Culture and Identity-Protective Cognition: Explaining the White Male Effect in Risk Perception > A. Summary of Key Findings
boosteddirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: fails — It may be too vague to check against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: fails — The paper may give no reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. It may be too vague to check against evidence. The paper may give no reason why it holds.
- Rests on an assumption: Cultural worldviews exert a causal influence on risk perceptions rather than merely being correlated with them.
In the paper
“Because individuals' identities are threatened when they encounter information that challenges beliefs commonly held within their group (Cohen et al., in press), the result is political conflict over risk regulation among groups committed to opposing hierarchical and egalitarian, individualistic and communitarian worldviews.”
§ Culture and Identity-Protective Cognition: Explaining the White Male Effect in Risk Perception > V. Conclusion
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites Cohen et al., in press
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
- Not matched
In the paper
“In selecting some risks for attention and dismissing others as unimportant, individuals are, effectively, advancing one culturally partisan vision of the ideal society over others (Kahan, in press).”
§ Culture and Identity-Protective Cognition: Explaining the White Male Effect in Risk Perception > C. Some Practical Implications
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites Kahan, in press
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: fails — It may be too vague to check against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. It may be too vague to check against evidence.
- Not matched
What the paper did — it cites no source for this, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The mode of proof used in this study also does not rule out the possibility that alternative or supplemental mechanisms of cognition are also contributing to the impact of cultural worldviews on individual risk perceptions.”
§ Culture and Identity-Protective Cognition: Explaining the White Male Effect in Risk Perception > B. Outstanding Issues and Questions 1. Experimental Follow-ups
hedged- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
What the paper did — it cites no source for this, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Conservatively estimated, the survey response rate was 42%, and the cooperation rate was 59%, which means that roughly six-in-ten of those identified as eligible respondents completed the survey.”
§ Culture and Identity-Protective Cognition: Explaining the White Male Effect in Risk Perception > Additional information
hedged- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. It may state two separate claims as one.
The authors state this as an assumption.
The distribution of risk perceptions across persons can yield insight about the formation of those perceptions.
“The basic premise of the study was that the distribution of risk perceptions across persons can yield insight about the formation of those perceptions.”
The paper relies on this without support.
Cultural worldviews exert a causal influence on risk perceptions rather than merely being correlated with them.
“Model 2 adds the cultural worldviews variables.”
The paper relies on this without support.
The cultural worldview variables validly and reliably measure the group-grid cultural dispositions they are intended to measure.
“Each worldview variable was significant and had the predicted sign.”
Self-check
Percentages, sums and reported differences re-computed from the paper’s own numbers.
Each contradiction between two passages listed here was confirmed by an independent check.
Rated minor: it would not touch a result — a value no result rests on, a p-value that stays on the same side of the significance level, or a conflict that is clerical, resolved elsewhere in the paper, or outside its own findings.
In the paper
§ Culture and Identity-Protective Cognition: Explaining the White Male Effect in Risk Perception > High Low
“In Model 4, we added the dummy variable Hierarchical White Female.”
§ Culture and Identity-Protective Cognition: Explaining the White Male Effect in Risk Perception > V. Conclusion
“| Hierarchical White Female | | | | | .098*** |”
Rated minor: it would not touch a result — a value no result rests on, a p-value that stays on the same side of the significance level, or a conflict that is clerical, resolved elsewhere in the paper, or outside its own findings.
In the paper
§ Culture and Identity-Protective Cognition: Explaining the White Male Effect in Risk Perception > V. Conclusion
“Table: 2 Table 2 : Environmental Risk Perception Regression Models”
§ Culture and Identity-Protective Cognition: Explaining the White Male Effect in Risk Perception > V. Conclusion
“N = 1844. Dependent variable is Gun Risk Perception. Coefficients are semi-”
Rated minor: it would not touch a result — a value no result rests on, a p-value that stays on the same side of the significance level, or a conflict that is clerical, resolved elsewhere in the paper, or outside its own findings.
In the paper
§ Culture and Identity-Protective Cognition: Explaining the White Male Effect in Risk Perception > Model 5 tests for significant interactions between demographic characteristics and cultural
“Figure 6: Interaction of Communitarianism-Individualism with Gender and Race on Gun-Risk Perceptions White women: y = 4.04 -.58 x Hierarchy White men: y = 5 -.95 x Hierarchy Communitarian Individualist Worldview”
§ Culture and Identity-Protective Cognition: Explaining the White Male Effect in Risk Perception > Model 5 tests for significant interactions between demographic characteristics and cultural
“Nonwhite men: y = 4.61 -.73 x Hierarchy Nonwhite women: y = 3.1 -.14 x Hierarchy”
Citations
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“…to credit or discredit factual information in a manner supportive of their prior, culturally-grounded views (Kahan et al. 2007); availability bias (Tversky & Kahneman 1973; Slovic et al. 1976), which might be expected to interact with worldviews if individuals are disposed more readily to take…”
BackgroundSlovic, P. (1987) · Science · doi:10.1126/science.3563507 · Cited by 9,271
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- Hofstadter R., 1970, America as a Gun Culture,” 21, American Heritage, 4
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Motivated numeracy and enlightened self-government
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“So does the controversy over gun risks (Kahan et al., 2007; Gastil et al., 2011).”
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“…minority of social psychologists argue for the centrality of cultural identities, intergroup relations, ideologies, emotions and social representations (e.g., Hogg and Smith, 2007; Joffe, 1999, 2003; Jost et al., 2004; Kahan et al., 2007; White et al., 2009) in people’s responses to risks.”
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Self-citation
Metadata
- Authors
- Kahan, D. M., Braman, D., Gastil, J., Slovic, P., & Mertz, C. K.
- Affiliations
- Yale University (US)
- George Washington University (US)
- Pennsylvania State University (US)
- University of Oregon (US)
- Corresponding author
- Kahan, Dan M.
- Braman, Donald
- Gastil, John
- Slovic, Paul
- Mertz, C. K.
- Venue
- Journal of Empirical Legal Studies
- Publisher
- Wiley
- Published
- 2007-09-11
- Volume
- 4
- Issue
- 3
- Pages
- 465-505
- ISSN
- 1740-1453 (ISSN-L)
- 1740-1461
- OpenAlex
- W2084725137
- Semantic Scholar
- 5685fbc8fa1fa5b4e70827fc82daaf2a877b4024
- Cited by
- 136
- References
- 90
- Citations by year
- 2025: 2 · 2024: 33 · 2023: 7 · 2022: 23 · 2021: 6 · 2020: 7 · 2019: 7 · 2018: 4 · 2017: 9 · 2016: 3 · 2015: 5 · 2014: 9 · 2013: 1 · 2012: 4
- FWCI
- 12.31
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- Locations
- Journal of Empirical Legal Studies (publishedVersion)
- bepress Legal Repository (submittedVersion)
- SSRN Electronic Journal (submittedVersion)
- Funders
- National Science Foundation (0242106)
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Sociology and Political Science › Risk Perception and Management
- Social Sciences › Sociology and Political Science › Social and Intergroup Psychology
- Social Sciences › Decision Sciences › General Decision Sciences › Decision-Making and Behavioral Economics
- Keywords
- risk perception, cultural identity, motivated cognition, gender differences, racial differences, cultural worldview, risk communication, risk regulation
About these checks
Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.
A language model drew the claims from the paper on 2026-10-23, under version 3 of the claim definition (model deepseek-v4.1-flash, prompt extract-v3).
A second model labelled each claim on 2026-10-23 (model jev-1.13-20260917, definition revision gold-guideline-v0.2).
Cited sources are checked with a language model’s help (gpt-6-sol).
Statistics and arithmetic are recomputed, not judged.
Confidence bands are shown only for fields calibrated on our annotated test set. None is calibrated yet, so no band is shown.
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