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Cited by 1,592Criminal Justice and Corrections AnalysisCriminal Justice and PenologyEducation Discipline and Inequality

THE INTERACTION OF RACE, GENDER, AND AGE IN CRIMINAL SENTENCING: THE PUNISHMENT COST OF BEING YOUNG, BLACK, AND MALE

STEFFENSMEIER, DARRELL, ULMER, JEFFERY, KRAMER, JOHN·1998·Criminology
DOI 10.1111/j.1745-9125.1998.tb01265.x
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Abstract

Prior theory and research on sentencing oversimplify the role of race, gender and age in judicial decision making. In this article we present a “focal concerns” theory of judicial decision making to frame hypotheses regarding the effects on sentencing of these social statuses, both singly and in combination. Analyzing statewide sentencing outcomes in Pennsylvania for 1989–1992, we find that, net of controls: (1) young black males are sentenced more harshly than any other group, (2) race is most influential in the sentencing of younger rather than older males, (3) the influence of offender's age on sentencing is greater among males than females, and (4) the main effects of race, gender, and age are more modest compared to the very large differences in sentencing outcomes across certain age‐race‐gender combinations. These findings demonstrate the importance of considering the joint effects of race, gender, and age on sentencing, and of using interactive rather than additive models.

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  • The focal concerns model of sentencing argues that subjective definitions of offenders and offenses in relation to three focal concerns of punishment-blameworthiness, protection of the community, and practical constraints-determine punishment decisions.

    “Relatedly, the focal concerns model of sentencing, and criminal justice decision making more broadly, argues that subjective definitions of offenders and offenses in relation to three focal concerns of punishment-blameworthiness, protection of the community, and practical constraintsdetermine punishment decisions (see Kramer & Ulmer 2009, Steffensmeier et al. 1998).”

    From Criminal Justice in Indian Country: A Theoretical and Empirical Agenda (2019) · cites this paper as Steffensmeier et al. 1998

  • The gender difference in racial disparities is most stark in incarceration.

    “The gender difference in racial disparities is perhaps most stark in incarceration (Steffensmeier, Ulmer, and Kramer 1998).”

    From Race and Economic Opportunity in the United States: an Intergenerational Perspective* (2020) · cites this paper as Steffensmeier, Ulmer, and Kramer 1998

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Authors
STEFFENSMEIER, D., ULMER, J., & KRAMER, J.
Affiliations
  • Pennsylvania State University (US)
  • Purdue University West Lafayette (US)
ORCID
Venue
Criminology
Publisher
Wiley
Published
1998-11
Volume
36
Issue
4
Pages
763-798
ISSN
  • 0011-1384 (ISSN-L)
  • 1745-9125
DOI
10.1111/j.1745-9125.1998.tb01265.x
OpenAlex
W1970998741
Cited by
1,592
References
3
Citations by year
2026: 71 · 2025: 87 · 2024: 51 · 2023: 88 · 2022: 96 · 2021: 84 · 2020: 89 · 2019: 109 · 2018: 84 · 2017: 74 · 2016: 80 · 2015: 90 · 2014: 87 · 2013: 65 · 2012: 63
FWCI
37.71
Type
journal article
Language
en
Open access
closed
Licence
onlinelibrary.wiley.com/termsAndConditions#vor (vor, 2683 d)
Locations
Criminology (publishedVersion)
Topics
  • Social Sciences › Sociology and Political Science › Criminal Justice and Corrections Analysis
  • Social Sciences › Law › Criminal Justice and Penology
  • Social Sciences › Education › Education Discipline and Inequality
Keywords
sentencing, racial disparities in sentencing, gender differences in sentencing, age of offenders, young Black males, focal concerns theory, judicial decision-making, interaction effects, Pennsylvania

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