The Growth, Scope, and Spatial Distribution of People With Felony Records in the United States, 1948–2010

Shannon, Sarah K. S.; Uggen, Christopher; Schnittker, Jason; Thompson, Melissa; Wakefield, Sara; Massoglia, Michael

doi:10.1007/s13524-017-0611-1

Cited by 356Criminal Justice and Corrections AnalysisCriminal Justice and PenologyCrime Patterns and Interventions

The Growth, Scope, and Spatial Distribution of People With Felony Records in the United States, 1948–2010

Open access

Shannon, Sarah K. S., Uggen, Christopher, Schnittker, Jason, Thompson, Melissa, Wakefield, Sara, Massoglia, Michael·2017·Demography

DOI 10.1007/s13524-017-0611-1PMC PMC5996985

Open this paper in CoChat — free account Open PDF

Abstract

The steep rise in U.S. criminal punishment in recent decades has spurred scholarship on the collateral consequences of imprisonment for individuals, families, and communities. Several excellent studies have estimated the number of people who have been incarcerated and the collateral consequences they face, but far less is known about the size and scope of the total U.S. population with felony convictions beyond prison walls, including those who serve their sentences on probation or in jail. This article develops state-level estimates based on demographic life tables and extends previous national estimates of the number of people with felony convictions to 2010. We estimate that 3 % of the total U.S. adult population and 15 % of the African American adult male population has ever been to prison; people with felony convictions account for 8 % of all adults and 33 % of the African American adult male population. We discuss the far-reaching consequences of the spatial concentration and immense growth of these groups since 1980.

The claims and statistics of this paper haven’t been checked yet.

Run the check — free, no account needed. It reads the open-access text and checks the sources it cites.

Integrity signals

Registry

Crossref · 10.1007/s13524-017-0611-1

Cites

51 of 51 references verified0 citation errors · 0 not checkable

Statistics

Claims the paper makes

The claims and statistics of this paper haven’t been checked yet.

Run the check — free, no account needed. It reads the open-access text and checks the sources it cites.

Claims other papers make about this one

Each is checked against this paper’s own text: does it say what the citing paper says it does?

More than 19 million people in the US have a felony conviction.
“The results are staggering; more than nineteen million people in the United States carry the burden of a felony conviction.”
From The Rise of the Carceral State: Foundations and Contours of a Rapidly Changing Criminal Legal System (2025) · cites this paper as Shannon et al. 2017
The Results (National-Level Estimates) estimate a total of 19 million people with felony convictions in 2010. The citing sentence says more than 19 million and presents the figure without its 2010 date; the source does not establish either the higher threshold or a current count. (LLM, conf=0.84)
Experimental — accuracy not yet measured

Self-check

Percentages, sums and reported differences re-computed from the paper’s own numbers.

The self-check needs the paper’s full text.

Local Indicators of Spatial Association—LISA
Anselin, L. (2010) · Geographical Analysis · doi:10.1111/j.1538-4632.1995.tb00338.x · Cited by 12,925 · see citing works
The Government Printing Office
Kling, R. (1968) · American Journal of Pharmaceutical Education · doi:10.1016/s0002-9459(24)09708-0 · Cited by 5,250 · see citing works
5. Statistics for Spatial Data
Rees, M., & Cressie, N. (1993) · Journal of the Royal Statistical Society Series A (Statistics in Society) · doi:10.2307/2982871 · Cited by 4,983 · see citing works
The New Penology: Notes on the Emerging Strategy of Corrections and Its Implications
Feeley, M., & Simon, J. (1992) · Criminology · doi:10.1111/j.1745-9125.1992.tb01112.x · Cited by 2,109 · cited 1× · see citing works
“To explain these preferences, punishment scholars point to the neoconservative politics of late modernity (Garland 2001b), a “new penology” to manage high-risk populations (Feeley and Simon 1992), public sentiment (Tonry 2004), the use of criminal justice and welfare institutions to tie postindustrial workers to preca…”
THE INTERACTION OF RACE, GENDER, AND AGE IN CRIMINAL SENTENCING: THE PUNISHMENT COST OF BEING YOUNG, BLACK, AND MALE
STEFFENSMEIER, D., ULMER, J., & KRAMER, J. (1998) · Criminology · doi:10.1111/j.1745-9125.1998.tb01265.x · Cited by 1,592 · see citing works
Mass imprisonment and the life course: Race and class inequality in U.S. incarceration
Pettit, B., & Western, B. (2004) · American Sociological Review · doi:10.1177/000312240406900201 · Cited by 1,499 · cited 1× · see citing works
“Western and Pettit have shown that incarceration has become a routine life event for low-skilled black men—more common than serving in the military or earning a college degree (Pettit and Western 2004; Western 2006).”
Spatial Autocorrelation
Kalogirou, S. (2020) · Encyclopedia of Database Systems · doi:10.1007/978-0-387-39940-9_3642 · Cited by 1,490
Spatial Data Analysis in the Social and Environmental Sciences
Zimmerman, D., & Haining, R. (1990) · doi:10.2307/622384 · Cited by 1,136 · cited 1×
“Moran’s I is the most commonly used statistic for detecting spatial clustering (Cliff and Ord 1973; Cressie 1993; Haining 1990), providing a summary global measure of whether the null hypothesis of spatial randomness can be rejected.”
Method
The growth of incarceration in the United States: exploring causes and consequences
Travis, J., Western, B., & Redburn, F. (2014) · National Academies Press eBooks · doi:10.17226/18613 · Cited by 1,095 · see citing works
Recidivism of Prisoners Released in 1994
Langan, P. A., & Levin, D. J. (2002) · Federal Sentencing Reporter · doi:10.1525/fsr.2002.15.1.58 · Cited by 1,008 · cited 1× · see citing works
“Although re-arrest rates have increased over time, the overall reconviction and reincarceration rates used for this study are much more stable (Langan and Levin 2002:11).4 For probationers and jail inmates, the corresponding three-year failure rate is 36 %.”
But They All Come Back: Facing the Challenges of Prisoner Reentry
Travis, J. (2005) · Choice Reviews Online · doi:10.5860/choice.43-1271 · Cited by 913 · cited 2× · see citing works
“Nevertheless, people convicted of felonies face more substantial and frequently permanent consequences (Ewald and Uggen 2012; Travis 2005; Uggen and Stewart 2015).”
Background
The Census of Population
Truesdell, L. E. (1930) · doi:10.1080/01621459.1930.10503098 · Cited by 818
Incarceration and Stratification
Wakefield, S., & Uggen, C. (2010) · Annual Review of Sociology · doi:10.1146/annurev.soc.012809.102551 · Cited by 747 · cited 3× · see citing works
“This is an important consideration, given that much research addresses the likelihood of incarceration and its personal and collateral consequences (Wakefield and Uggen 2010).”
Self-citation
Racial disparities in official assessments of juvenile offenders : Attributional stereotypes as mediating mechanisms
Bridges, G. S., & Steen, S. (1998) · American Sociological Review · doi:10.2307/2657267 · Cited by 661 · cited 1× · see citing works
“2006; Tonry 1996), rates of conviction (Bridges and Steen 1998), and sentencing patterns (Steffensmeier et al.”
Enduring Stigma: The Long-Term Effects of Incarceration on Health∗
Schnittker, J., & John, A. (2007) · Journal of Health and Social Behavior · doi:10.1177/002214650704800202 · Cited by 545 · see citing works
Self-citation
Parental imprisonment, the prison boom, and the concentration of childhood disadvantage
Wildeman, C. (2009) · Demography · doi:10.1353/dem.0.0052 · Cited by 538 · cited 3× · see citing works
“2014), family concentration (Turney 2014; Wildeman 2009), and neighborhood clustering (Kirk 2008).”
Governing Social Marginality: Welfare, Incarceration, and the Transformation of State Policy
BECKETT, K., & WESTERN, B. (2001) · Punishment & Society · doi:10.1177/14624740122228249 · Cited by 518 · cited 1× · see citing works
“Variation in punishment rates by state is attributable to differences in economics, crime rates, demographics, politics, and sentencing laws (Barker 2006; Beckett and Western 2001; Greenberg andWest 2001; Jacobs and Helms 2001; Lynch 2010; Stucky et al. 2005).”
Democratic Contraction? Political Consequences of Felon Disenfranchisement in the United States
Uggen, C., & Manza, J. (2002) · American Sociological Review · doi:10.1177/000312240206700601 · Cited by 497 · see citing works
Self-citation
How Unregulated Is the U.S. Labor Market? The Penal System as a Labor Market Institution
Western, B., & Beckett, K. (1999) · American Journal of Sociology · doi:10.1086/210135 · Cited by 489 · see citing works
Race, Drugs, and Policing: Understanding Disparities in Drug Delivery Arrests*
Beckett, K., Nyrop, K., & Pfingst, L. (2006) · Criminology · doi:10.1111/j.1745-9125.2006.00044.x · Cited by 405 · see citing works
Citizenship, Democracy, and the Civic Reintegration of Criminal Offenders
Uggen, C., Manza, J., & Thompson, M. (2006) · The Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science · doi:10.1177/0002716206286898 · Cited by 383 · see citing works
Self-citation
THE EDGE OF STIGMA: AN EXPERIMENTAL AUDIT OF THE EFFECTS OF LOW‐LEVEL CRIMINAL RECORDS ON EMPLOYMENT
UGGEN, C., VUOLO, M., LAGESON, S., RUHLAND, E., & K. WHITHAM, H. (2014) · Criminology · doi:10.1111/1745-9125.12051 · Cited by 367 · see citing works
Self-citation
Mass Imprisonment: Social Causes and Consequences
Garland, D. (2001) · SAGE Publications Ltd eBooks · doi:10.4135/9781446221228 · Cited by 364 · see citing works
Stress Proliferation across Generations? Examining the Relationship between Parental Incarceration and Childhood Health
Turney, K. (2014) · Journal of Health and Social Behavior · doi:10.1177/0022146514544173 · Cited by 335 · cited 2× · see citing works
“2014), family concentration (Turney 2014; Wildeman 2009), and neighborhood clustering (Kirk 2008).”
State Prison Populations and Their Growth, 1971–1991
Greenberg, D., & West, V. (2001) · Criminology · doi:10.1111/j.1745-9125.2001.tb00935.x · Cited by 290 · see citing works
Ballot Manipulation and the “Menace of Negro Domination”: Racial Threat and Felon Disenfranchisement in the United States, 1850–2002
Behrens, A., Uggen, C., & Manza, J. (2003) · American Journal of Sociology · doi:10.1086/378647 · Cited by 288 · cited 2× · see citing works
“Although our analysis cannot provide a critical test of competing punishment theories, these results are in many ways consistent with theories based on neoconservatism, conflict, and group threat (Behrens et al. 2003; Garland 2001b; Wacquant 2012).”
Self-citation
Incarceration, Health, and Racial Disparities in Health
Massoglia, M. (2008) · Law & Society Review · doi:10.1111/j.1540-5893.2008.00342.x · Cited by 272 · cited 1× · see citing works
“Contact with the criminal justice system incurs substantial social and demographic consequences, including restrictions on employment, housing, voting, and welfare receipt, as well as long-term effects on physical and mental health (Ewald and Uggen 2012; Massoglia 2008; Schnittker and John 2007).”
Self-citation
Demographic Patterns of Cumulative Arrest Prevalence by Ages 18 and 23
Brame, R. W., Bushway, S. D., Paternoster, R., & Turner, M. G. (2014) · Crime & Delinquency · doi:10.1177/0011128713514801 · Cited by 266 · cited 2× · see citing works
“approximately 38 % of white males) (Brame et al. 2014).”
The Paradox of Probation: Community Supervision in the Age of Mass Incarceration
Phelps, M. S. (2013) · Law & Policy · doi:10.1111/lapo.12002 · Cited by 260 · cited 3× · see citing works
“” Moreover, such concentration applies both to people in prison and to millions of nonincarcerated people with felony convictions (Phelps 2013).”
Influential
Cumulative prevalence of arrest from ages 8 to 23 in a national sample
Brame, R., Turner, M. G., Paternoster, R., & Bushway, S. D. (2012) · Pediatrics · doi:10.1542/peds.2010-3710 · Cited by 236 · see citing works
The Emerging Paradigm in Probation and Parole in the United States
Kimora (2008) · doi:10.1080/10509670802143185 · Cited by 236
Mass Incarceration, Family Complexity, and the Reproduction of Childhood Disadvantage
Sykes, B. L., & Pettit, B. (2014) · The Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science · doi:10.1177/0002716214526345 · Cited by 173 · cited 1× · see citing works
“Wildeman (2009) did the same for racial disparities among children in the likelihood of experiencing parental incarceration (see also Sykes and Pettit 2014).”
The Effects of Male Incarceration Dynamics on Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome Infection Rates among African American Women and Men
Johnson, R. C., & Raphael, S. (2009) · The Journal of Law and Economics · doi:10.1086/597102 · Cited by 171 · see citing works
The neighborhood context of racial and ethnic disparities in arrest
Kirk, D. (2008) · Demography · doi:10.1353/dem.2008.0011 · Cited by 146 · cited 2× · see citing works
“2014), family concentration (Turney 2014; Wildeman 2009), and neighborhood clustering (Kirk 2008).”
INCARCERATION AND THE HEALTH OF THE AFRICAN AMERICAN COMMUNITY1
Schnittker, J., Massoglia, M., & Uggen, C. (2011) · Du Bois Review: Social Science Research on Race · doi:10.1017/s1742058x11000026 · Cited by 111 · cited 1× · see citing works
“There is good reason to believe that the aggregate presence and relative size of populations with felony records have spillover effects on social institutions and processes, especially in communities of color (Schnittker et al. 2011; Wakefield and Uggen 2010).”
Self-citation
Partisan Politics, Electoral Competition and Imprisonment: An Analysis of States over Time
Stucky, T. D., Heimer, K., & Lang, J. B. (2005) · doi:10.1111/j.0011-1348.2005.00007.x · Cited by 104
Deported
Scammell, M. (n.d.) · Solzhenitsyn · doi:10.4324/9781003153337-45 · Cited by 95 · cited 1×
“Nationally, we assume that the majority of deportees are male (Golash-Boza 2015), multiplying the total number of deportees in each year by 0.9 to obtain male rates.”
Influential
The politics of punishing
Barker, V. (2005) · Punishment & Society · doi:10.1177/1462474506059138 · Cited by 88 · cited 4× · see citing works
“…enforcement (Durlauf and Nagin 2011) and communities (Clear and Frost 2014); however, states have continued to implement widely varying criminal justice policies, particularly in the extent to which they emphasize law enforcement, incarceration, and community supervision (Barker 2006; Phelps 2017).”
Influential
Piling On: Collateral Consequences and Community Supervision
Uggen, C., & Stewart, R. (2015) · Minnesota law review · doi:10.24926/265535.1171 · Cited by 81 · see citing works
Self-citation
Deported: Immigrant Policing, Disposable Labor and Global Capitalism
Golash-Boza, T. (2015) · Choice Reviews Online · doi:10.5860/choice.196560 · Cited by 59 · cited 1× · see citing works
“Nationally, we assume that the majority of deportees are male (Golash-Boza 2015), multiplying the total number of deportees in each year by 0.”
Background
The Institutional Effects of Incarceration: Spillovers From Criminal Justice to Health Care
Schnittker, J., Uggen, C., Shannon, S., & McElrath, S. (2015) · Milbank Quarterly · doi:10.1111/1468-0009.12136 · Cited by 57 · cited 1× · see citing works
“states with higher rates of people with prison records experience lower access to and quality of health care, even for those who have never been incarcerated (Schnittker et al. 2015).”
Self-citation
Toward a Political Sociology of Punishment: Politics and Changes in the Incarcerated Population☆
Jacobs, D., & Helms, R. (2001) · doi:10.1006/ssre.2000.0686 · Cited by 56
The punitive regulation of poverty in the neoliberal age
Wacquant, L. (2012) · doi:10.1080/09627251.2012.721980 · Cited by 52
Overview of “Imprisonment and crime: Can both be reduced?”
Durlauf, S. N., & Nagin, D. S. (2011) · Criminology & Public Policy · doi:10.1111/j.1745-9133.2010.00681.x · Cited by 48 · cited 1× · see citing works
“Criminologists are increasingly calling for a broad shift of resources away from incarceration (National Research Council 2014) and toward law enforcement (Durlauf and Nagin 2011) and communities (Clear and Frost 2014); however, states have continued to implement widely varying criminal justice policies, particularly…”
A Portrait of Prisoner Reentry in Texas
Watson, J., Solomon, A. L., La Vigne, N. G., Travis, J., Funches, M., & Parthasarathy, B. (2004) · PsycEXTRA Dataset · doi:10.1037/e720302011-001 · Cited by 38 · see citing works
Geographic Variation in the Cumulative Risk of Imprisonment and Parental Imprisonment in the United States
Muller, C. D., & Wildeman, C. (2016) · Demography · doi:10.1007/s13524-016-0493-7 · Cited by 32 · see citing works
Reporting recidivism rates: The criterion and follow-up issues
Hoffman, P., & Stone-Meierhoefer, B. (1980) · doi:10.1016/0047-2352(80)90059-8 · Cited by 21
The Collateral Effects of Imprisonment on Prisoners, Their Families, and Communities
Ewald, A. C., & Uggen, C. (2012) · doi:10.1093/oxfordhb/9780199730148.013.0003 · Cited by 20 · cited 2×
“Nevertheless, people convicted of felonies face more substantial and frequently permanent consequences (Ewald and Uggen 2012; Travis 2005; Uggen and Stewart 2015).”
Self-citation
Invisible Men
Veneciano, J. D. (1995) · Afterimage · doi:10.1525/aft.1995.23.2.12 · Cited by 15 · cited 11×
“The cumulative risk of imprisonment for black men ages 20–34 without a high school diploma stands at 68 % compared with 21 % of black men with a high school diploma and 28 % for white men without a high school diploma (Pettit 2012).”
Influential
Digital Punishment’s Tangled Web
Lageson, S. (2016) · doi:10.1177/1536504216628841 · Cited by 13 · cited 1×
“People with any kind of criminal history experience wide-ranging penalties and disruptions in their lives, especially given the widespread availability of criminal background information (Lageson 2016; Uggen et al. 2014).”
Incarceration Nation: How the United States Became the Most Punitive Democracy in the World. By Peter K. Enns. New York: Cambridge University Press, 2016. Pp. xiii+192. $99.99 (cloth); $24.99 (paper).
Pettit, B. (2018) · doi:10.1086/694758 · Cited by 8 · cited 1×
“Most recently, Enns (2016) developed state-specific public opinion measures and showed how punitiveness helps explain variation in state incarceration rates since 1950.”

Flagged first, then by citations

36 of the 87 references couldn’t be matched to a known paper.

Research works printed but not linked: 15

Carson EA Golinelli D 2013 Prisoners in 2012 (Bureau of Justice Statistics Bulletin, No. NCJ 243920) Washington, DC U.S. Department of Justice
Clear TR 2007 Imprisoning communities New York, NY Oxford University Press
Clear TR Frost NA 2014 The punishment imperative New York, NY NYU Press
Enns PK 2016 Incarceration nation: How the United States became the most punitive democracy in the world Cambridge, UK Cambridge University Press
Garland D 2001b The culture of control: Crime and social order in contemporary society Chicago, IL University of Chicago Press
Glaze LE Bonczar TP 2011 Probation and parole in the United States 2010 (Bureau of Justice Statistics Bulletin No. NCJ 236019) Washington, DC U.S. Department of Justice
Guerino P Harrison PM Sabol WJ 2012 Prisoners in 2010 (Bureau of Justice Statistics Bulletin, No. NCJ 236096) Washington, DC U.S. Department of Justice
Johnson RC Raphael S 2009 The effects of male incarceration dynamics on AIDS infection rates among African-American women and men Journal of Law and Economics 52 251 293
Kaeble D Glaze L Tsoutis A Minton T 2015 Correctional populations in the United States, 2014 (Bureau of Justice Statistics Bulletin, No. NCJ 249513) Washington, DC U.S. Department of Justice
Kaeble D Maruschak LM Bonczar TP 2015 Probation and parole in the United States, 2014 (Bureau of Justice Statistics Bulletin, No. NCJ 249057) Washington, DC U.S. Department of Justice
Maruschak LM Bonczar TP 2013 Probation and parole in the United States, 2012 (Bureau of Justice Statistics Bulletin, No. NCJ 24842) Washington, DC U.S. Department of Justice
Phelps MS 2017 Mass probation: Toward a more robust theory of state variation in punishment Punishment & Society 19 53 73 PMC6010031 29937694
Tonry M 1996 Malign neglect: Race, crime, and punishment in America New York, NY Oxford University Press
Tonry M 2004 Thinking about crime: Sense and sensibility in American penal culture New York, NY Oxford University Press
U.S. Bureau of the Census 1984 1980 Census of Population (Vol. 2, Subject Reports) Washington, DC U.S. Department of Commerce

Sorted by citations

Risk of being killed by police use of force in the United States by age, race–ethnicity, and sex
Edwards, F., Lee, H., & Esposito, M. (2019) · Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences · doi:10.1073/pnas.1821204116 · Cited by 916 · see citing works
Collateral Consequences of Punishment: A Critical Review and Path Forward
Kirk, D. S., & Wakefield, S. (2018) · Annual Review of Criminology · doi:10.1146/annurev-criminol-032317-092045 · Cited by 346 · see citing works
Self-citation
Where Have All the Workers Gone? An Inquiry into the Decline of the U.S. Labor Force Participation Rate
Krueger, A. (2018) · Brookings papers on economic activity · doi:10.1353/eca.2017.0012 · Cited by 323 · see citing works
Linkages Between Incarceration and Health
Massoglia, M., & Remster, B. (2019) · Public Health Reports® · doi:10.1177/0033354919826563 · Cited by 203 · see citing works
“1 million persons were incarcerated on any given day in 2016, and almost 20 million persons had a felony conviction in the United States as of 2010.(3,4) Moreover, expansion of the US penal system has not been uniform; for example, in a study combining administrative, survey, and census data, an estimated 20% of black…”
Self-citation
Job Seeking: The Process and Experience of Looking for a Job
Wanberg, C. R., Ali, A. A., & Csillag, B. (2019) · Annual Review of Organizational Psychology and Organizational Behavior · doi:10.1146/annurev-orgpsych-012119-044939 · Cited by 156 · see citing works
Criminal records and college admissions: A modified experimental audit
Stewart, R., & Uggen, C. (2018) · Criminology (Beverly Hills) · doi:10.1111/1745-9125.12229 · Cited by 109 · see citing works
Self-citation
Diversion in the Criminal Justice System
Mueller-Smith, M., & Schnepel, K. T. (2020) · The Review of Economic Studies · doi:10.1037/e518992009-001 · Cited by 103 · see citing works
Mass Incarceration and Racial Inequality
Pettit, B., & Gutiérrez, C. (2018) · American Journal of Economics and Sociology · doi:10.1111/ajes.12241 · Cited by 127 · see citing works
Debt, Incarceration, and Re-entry: a Scoping Review
Harper, A., Ginapp, C., Bardelli, T., Grimshaw, A., Justen, M., Mohamedali, A., Thomas, I., & Puglisi, L. (2021) · American Journal of Criminal Justice · doi:10.1007/s12103-020-09559-9 · Cited by 76 · see citing works
Employer aversion to criminal records: An experimental study of mechanisms
Sugie, N. F., Zatz, N. D., & Augustine, D. (2019) · Criminology (Beverly Hills) · doi:10.1111/1745-9125.12228 · Cited by 69 · see citing works
“…conviction records (Bureau of Justice Statistics, 2015), which corresponds to approximately 25 percent of the U.S. adult population (Jacobs, 2015a), and it is estimated that 13 percent of adult males (and 33 percent of African American males) have felony conviction records (Shannon et al., 2017).”
Beyond the eternal criminal record: Public support for expungement
Burton, A., Cullen, F. T., Pickett, J. T., Burton, V. S., & Thielo, A. J. (2020) · Criminology & Public Policy · doi:10.1111/1745-9133.12531 · Cited by 61 · see citing works
Propensity-matched study of enhanced primary care on contact with the criminal justice system among individuals recently released from prison to New Haven
Wang, E. A., Lin, H.-J., Aminawung, J. A., Busch, S. H., Gallagher, C., Maurer, K., Puglisi, L., Shavit, S., & Frisman, L. (2019) · BMJ Open · doi:10.1136/bmjopen-2018-028097 · Cited by 58 · see citing works
The Consequences of Incarceration for Mortality in the United States
Daza, S., Palloni, A., & Jones, J. (2020) · Demography · doi:10.1007/s13524-020-00869-5 · Cited by 53 · see citing works
Sick And Tired Of Being Excluded: Structural Racism In Disenfranchisement As A Threat To Population Health Equity.
Homan, P., & Brown, T. (2022) · Health Affairs · doi:10.1377/hlthaff.2021.01414 · Cited by 52 · see citing works
School suspension and social selection: Labeling, network change, and adolescent, academic achievement
Duxbury, S., & Haynie, D. L. (2019) · Social Science Research · doi:10.1016/j.ssresearch.2019.102365 · Cited by 55 · see citing works
The Minimum Wage, EITC, and Criminal Recidivism
Agan, A. Y. M., & Makowsky, M. D. M. (2018) · The Journal of human resources · doi:10.3368/jhr.58.5.1220-11398r1 · Cited by 47
“Shannon et al. (2017) estimate that 15 percent of the Black, male population in the United States has been to prison and 33 percent of them have a felony conviction.”
Damned if you do, damned if you don't: How formerly incarcerated men navigate the labor market with prison credentials
Lindsay, S. L. (2022) · Criminology (Beverly Hills) · doi:10.1111/1745-9125.12307 · Cited by 44 · see citing works
AI literacy and trust: A multi-method study of Human-GAI team collaboration
Pan, Z., Moore, O. A., Papadimitriou, A., & Zhu, J. (2025) · Computers in Human Behavior Artificial Humans · doi:10.1016/j.chbah.2025.100162 · Cited by 42 · see citing works
Losing Years Doing Time: Incarceration Exposure and Accelerated Biological Aging among African American Adults
Berg, M. T., Rogers, E. M., Lei, M.-K., & Simons, R. L. (2021) · Journal of Health and Social Behavior · doi:10.1177/00221465211052568 · Cited by 41 · see citing works
Adverse Childhood Experiences and Criminal Justice Contact in Adulthood: ACEs and Adult Criminal Justice Contact.
Testa, A., Jackson, D. B., Ganson, K., & Nagata, J. M. (2021) · Academic pediatrics · doi:10.1016/j.acap.2021.10.011 · Cited by 39 · see citing works
Criminal Records, Positive Employment Credentials, and Race
DeWitt, S. E., & Denver, M. (2019) · Journal of Research in Crime and Delinquency · doi:10.1177/0022427819886111 · Cited by 42 · see citing works
Lethal Force in Black and White: Assessing Racial Disparities in the Circumstances of Police Killings
Streeter, S. (2019) · Journal of Politics · doi:10.1086/703541 · Cited by 35 · see citing works
Police brutality against Blacks in the United States and ensuing protests: Implications for social distancing and Black health during COVID-19
Njoku, A., Ahmed, Y., & Bolaji, B. (2020) · Journal of Human Behavior in The Social Environment · doi:10.1080/10911359.2020.1822251 · Cited by 33 · see citing works
“This is emboldened by the fact that of the 8% of American adults with felony convictions, Black men comprise 33% of them (Shannon et al., 2017).”
Background
A Life Course Analysis of Homeless Shelter Use among the Formerly Incarcerated
Remster, B. (2017) · Justice Quarterly · doi:10.1080/07418825.2017.1401653 · Cited by 34 · see citing works
Before and After Ban the Box: Who Complies with Anti-Discrimination Law?
Schneider, L. E., Vuolo, M., Lageson, S. E., & Uggen, C. (2021) · Law & Social Inquiry · doi:10.1017/lsi.2021.54 · Cited by 34 · see citing works
“ately low-educated racial and ethnic minorities (Western and Pettit 2004; Shannon et al. 2017).”
BackgroundInfluentialSelf-citation
Young People, Shadow Carceral Innovations, and the Reproduction of Inequality
Selman, K. J., Myers, R., & Goddard, T. (2019) · Critical Criminology · doi:10.1007/s10612-019-09468-2 · Cited by 32 · see citing works
Racial Innocence: Law, Social Science, and the Unknowing of Racism in the US Carceral State
Murakawa, N. (2019) · Annual Review of Law and Social Science · doi:10.1146/annurev-lawsocsci-101518-042649 · Cited by 31 · see citing works
What Is Wrong with Monetary Sanctions? Directions for Policy, Practice, and Research
Friedman, B., Harris, A., Huebner, B. M., Martin, K. D., Pettit, B., Shannon, S. K. S., & Sykes, B. L. (2022) · RSF · doi:10.7758/rsf.2022.8.1.10 · Cited by 31
Self-citation
The Varying Effects of Incarceration, Conviction, and Arrest on Wealth Outcomes among Young Adults
Maroto, M. L., & Sykes, B. L. (2019) · Social Problems · doi:10.1093/socpro/spz023 · Cited by 32 · see citing works
Barred from employment: More than half of unemployed men in their 30s had a criminal history of arrest
Bushway, S., Cabreros, I., Paige, J., Schwam, D., & Wenger, J. (2022) · Science Advances · doi:10.1126/sciadv.abj6992 · Cited by 29 · see citing works
Revisiting the Weberian Presumption: Gun Militarism, Gun Populism, and the Racial Politics of Legitimate Violence in Policing
Carlson, J. (2019) · American Journal of Sociology · doi:10.1086/707609 · Cited by 29 · see citing works
Cumulative impact: Why prison sentences have increased
King, R. D. (2018) · Criminology (Beverly Hills) · doi:10.1111/1745-9125.12197 · Cited by 29
“Incorporating the latter measure is diﬃcult in practice because we have few oﬀ-the-shelf estimates of the ex-felon population at state or county levels (save Shannon et al., 2017).”
Level of Criminal Justice Contact and Early Adult Wage Inequality
Apel, R., & Powell, K. (2019) · RSF: The Russell Sage Foundation Journal of the Social Sciences · doi:10.7758/rsf.2019.5.1.09 · Cited by 29 · see citing works
The economic and social costs of body dissatisfaction and appearance-based discrimination in the United States
Yetsenga, R., Banerjee, R., Streatfeild, J., McGregor, K., Austin, S., Lim, B., Diedrichs, P., Greaves, K., Mattei, J., Puhl, R., et al. (2024) · Eating Disorders · doi:10.1080/10640266.2024.2328461 · Cited by 28 · see citing works
“Longer-term social consequences, such as housing instability and employment instability (Shannon et al., 2017), were also not included.”
Housing Instability Following Felony Conviction and Incarceration: Disentangling Being Marked from Being Locked Up
Bryan, B. (2022) · Journal of quantitative criminology · doi:10.1007/s10940-022-09550-z · Cited by 28 · see citing works
Privatizing criminal stigma: Experience, intergroup contact, and public views about publicizing arrest records
Lageson, S., Denver, M., & Pickett, J. T. (2019) · Punishment & Society · doi:10.1177/1462474518772040 · Cited by 26 · see citing works
“adult population has a felony conviction (Shannon et al., 2017).”
Background
Mental health outcomes in formerly incarcerated Black men: A systematic mixed studies review.
Addison, H. A., Richmond, T., Lewis, L., & Jacoby, S. F. (2022) · Journal of Advanced Nursing · doi:10.1111/jan.15235 · Cited by 25 · see citing works
The Accumulation of Disadvantage: Criminal Justice Contact, Credit, and Debt in the Transition to Adulthood
DeMarco, L. M., Dwyer, R. E., & Haynie, D. (2021) · Criminology (Beverly Hills) · doi:10.1111/1745-9125.12286 · Cited by 25 · see citing works
“By 2010, approximately 3 percent of the U.S. population experienced incarceration, 30 percent of young adults experienced arrest, and an estimated 7 − 8 percent of the population had a felony record (Brame et al., 2012; Kaebel & Glaze, 2016; Shannon et al., 2017).”
Locking up my generation: Cohort differences in prison spells over the life course
Shen, Y., Bushway, S. D., Sorensen, L. C., & Smith, H. L. (2020) · Criminology · doi:10.1111/1745-9125.12256 · Cited by 28 · see citing works
Redeeming desistance: From individual journeys to a social movement
Maruna, S. (2025) · Criminology (Beverly Hills) · doi:10.1111/1745-9125.12393 · Cited by 22 · see citing works
“After all, there are an estimated 70 million people in the United States alone who have a criminal record (Shannon et al., 2017) and countless millions more who have been deeply impacted by a family member’s incarceration (Comfort, 2019; Condry & Minson, 2021; McCorkel, 2016).”
Probation officer discretion in monitoring and violating supervision conditions
Ruhland, E. L., & Scheibler, E. (2021) · Probation Journal · doi:10.1177/02645505211041578 · Cited by 22 · see citing works
Criminal record stigma, race, and neighborhood inequality
DeMarco, L. M. (2023) · Criminology · doi:10.1111/1745-9125.12347 · Cited by 27 · see citing works
Digitizing and Disclosing Personal Data: The Proliferation of State Criminal Records on the Internet
Lageson, S. E., Webster, E., & Sandoval, J. R. (2020) · Law & Social Inquiry · doi:10.1017/lsi.2020.37 · Cited by 24 · see citing works
Entrepreneurship as a Response to Labor Market Discrimination for Formerly Incarcerated People
Hwang, K. J., & Phillips, D. J. (2024) · American Journal of Sociology · doi:10.1086/729476 · Cited by 43 · see citing works
Critical race and feminist standpoint theories in physics education research: A historical review and potential applications
Rodriguez, M., Barthelemy, R. S., & McCormick, M. (2022) · Physical Review Physics Education Research · doi:10.1103/physrevphyseducres.18.013101 · Cited by 20 · see citing works
Policing Is a Public Health Issue: The Important Role of Health Educators
Fleming, P., Lopez, W., Spolum, M. M., Anderson, R., Reyes, A., & Schulz, A. (2021) · Health Education & Behavior · doi:10.1177/10901981211001010 · Cited by 20 · see citing works
Felon history and change in U.S. employment rates
Larson, R., Shannon, S., Sojourner, A., & Uggen, C. (2021) · Social Science Research · doi:10.1016/j.ssresearch.2021.102649 · Cited by 22 · see citing works
“Shannon et al. (2017) provide two state-level estimates: an overall felony history percentage and a Black felony history percentage.”
InfluentialSelf-citation
Incarceration exposure and epigenetic aging in neighborhood context.
Berg, M. T., Rogers, E. M., Riley, K., Lei, M.-K., & Simons, R. L. (2022) · Social Science & Medicine (1967) · doi:10.1016/j.socscimed.2022.115273 · Cited by 18 · see citing works
Punitive ambiguity: State-level criminal record data quality in the era of widespread background screening
McElhattan, D. (2021) · Punishment & Society · doi:10.1177/1462474521989502 · Cited by 18 · see citing works
Locked Out of the Labor Market? State-Level Hidden Sentences and the Labor Market Outcomes of Recently Incarcerated Young Adults
Warner, C., Kaiser, J., & Houle, J. N. (2020) · RSF The Russell Sage Foundation Journal of the Social Sciences · doi:10.7758/rsf.2020.6.1.06 · Cited by 32 · see citing works
“According to recent estimates, between seventy and one hundred million Americans have a criminal record (Vallas and Dietrich 2014), 7.3 million adults have been incarcerated (Shannon et al. 2017), and more than six hundred thousand are released from prison every year (Carson 2018).”
Influential
Employment Application Criminal Record Questions and Willingness to Apply: A Mixed Method Study of Self-Selection
Vuolo, M., Schneider, L. E., & LaPlant, E. G. (2022) · American Journal of Sociology · doi:10.1086/722293 · Cited by 16 · see citing works
“This difference is also meaningful at the population level, given that Black people are more likely to have a criminal record (Shannon et al. 2017) and that White people have disproportionately greater geographic access to felon-friendly employers (Rucks-Ahidiana et al.”
BackgroundInfluential
Monetary Sanctions as Chronic and Acute Health Stressors: The Emotional Strain of People Who Owe Court Fines and Fees
Harris, A., & Smith, T. (2022) · RSF · doi:10.7758/rsf.2022.8.2.02 · Cited by 16 · see citing works
“…some form of criminal legal control (6.6 million), and those estimated to have a felony conviction (3 percent), we can safely assume that a large segment of the U.S. population has been charged with monetary sanctions at some point in their lifetime (Kaeble and Cowhig 2018; Shannon et al. 2017).”
BackgroundInfluential
Enhancing the Carceral State: Criminal/ized History Questions in College Admissions
Castro, E. L., & Magana, S. (2020) · Journal of College Student Development · doi:10.1353/csd.2020.0077 · Cited by 16
“For all men, the lifetime risk of imprison-ment is 1 in 9; for white men, it is 1 in 17, for indicate that approximately 23% of Black adults overall and 33% of Black adult males have felony records, compared with 8% of adults and 13% of adult males in the overall population (Shannon et al., 2017).”
Background
“We’re Here to Help”: Criminal Justice Collaboration among Social Service Providers across the Urban-Rural Continuum
Simes, J. T., & Tichenor, E. (2022) · Social Service Review · doi:10.1086/719901 · Cited by 15 · see citing works
“Practitioners across the spectrum of services including housing, employment, substance use, and reentry have direct connection to the more than 70 million people with felony records (Shannon et al. 2017).”
Background
Protective Factors to Promote Health and Flourishing in Black Youth Exposed to Parental Incarceration
Boch, S. J., & Ford, J. L. (2021) · Nursing Research · doi:10.1097/nnr.0000000000000522 · Cited by 14 · see citing works
Homelessness among Formerly Incarcerated Men: Patterns and Predictors
Remster, B. (2021) · The Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science · doi:10.1177/0002716221993447 · Cited by 14 · see citing works
“I the United States, approximately 626,000 individuals exit prison annually, and more than five million Americans have an incarceration history (Carson 2018; Shannon et al. 2017).”
Background
Jury diversity in the age of mass incarceration: an exploratory mock jury experiment examining felon-jurors’ potential impacts on deliberations
Binnall, J. M. (2018) · Psychology, Crime and Law · doi:10.1080/1068316x.2018.1528359 · Cited by 14 · see citing works
“Research estimates that 3 percent of adults have been to prison, and 8 percent of adults, 19 million American citizens, have been convicted of a felony (Shannon et al., 2017).”
Background
FINANCING THE WAR ON DRUGS: THE IMPACT OF LAW ENFORCEMENT GRANTS ON RACIAL DISPARITIES IN DRUG ARRESTSPreprint
Cox, R. S., & Cunningham, J. P. (2017) · Journal of policy analysis and management · doi:10.2139/ssrn.3035640 · Cited by 14 · see citing works
Conviction, Incarceration, and Recidivism: Understanding the Revolving Door
Humphries, J., Ouss, A., Stavreva, K., Stevenson, M., & van Dijk, W. (2024) · Social Science Research Network · doi:10.3386/w32894 · Cited by 13
Equity, Empowerment, and Social Justice: Social Entrepreneurship for Formerly Incarcerated Individuals
Trivedi, C., & Ray, S. M. (2024) · New Horizons in adult education & Human resource development · doi:10.1177/19394225231223388 · Cited by 13 · see citing works
“Today, 19.6 million people live with a felony record and almost all of them live in dire poverty with one-third of this population being Black (Miller, 2021; Shannon et al., 2017).”
BackgroundInfluential
Fatherhood, Behavioral Health, and Criminal Legal System Contact over the Life Course
McKay, T. E., & Tadros, E. (2022) · Journal of Health and Social Behavior · doi:10.1177/00221465221139246 · Cited by 13 · see citing works
The Proliferation of Criminal Background Check Laws in the United States
McElhattan, D. (2022) · American Journal of Sociology · doi:10.1086/718262 · Cited by 13 · see citing works
Incarceration, Families, and Communities: Recent Developments and Enduring Challenges
Wakefield, S. (2022) · Crime and Justice · doi:10.1086/721741 · Cited by 13 · see citing works
“Clever scholars have pooled data sources to estimate the number of people who have been incarcerated (Pettit and Western 2004;Muller andWildeman 2016), have been convicted of a felony (Shannon et al. 2017), or have had a parent who experienced incarceration (Sykes and Pettit 2015).”
BackgroundSelf-citation
The waiting game: Anticipatory stress and its proliferation during jail incarceration
Turney, K., Sugie, N. F., Marín, E., & Kaiser, D. E. (2024) · Criminology (Beverly Hills) · doi:10.1111/1745-9125.12388 · Cited by 12 · see citing works
“In fact, we believe that the majority-Latino/a sample is a strength in a field dominated primarily by White–Black disparities (partly due to empirical challenges; see Shannon et al., 2017) despite highly disproportionate criminal legal contact among Latino/a individuals.”
Criminal Justice Involvement, Self‐Employment, and Barriers in Recent Public Policy
Finlay, K., Mueller-Smith, M., & Street, B. (2022) · Journal of policy analysis and management · doi:10.1002/pam.22438 · Cited by 12 · see citing works
“1 Recent estimates suggest that 8% of all adult men have a felony conviction and 3% have been to prison, which is most pronounced within minority communities (Shannon et al. 2017).”
Dual Debtors: Child Support and Criminal Legal Financial Obligations
Horowitz, V. L., Spencer-Suarez, K., Larson, R., Stewart, R., Edwards, F., Obara, E. E., & Uggen, C. (2022) · Social Service Review · doi:10.1086/720016 · Cited by 12 · see citing works
Self-citation
Scripting the Conviction: Power and Resistance in the Management of Criminal Stigma
Burch, M. (2021) · American Anthropologist · doi:10.1111/aman.13613 · Cited by 12 · see citing works
Restitution without Restoration? Exploring the Gap between the Perception and Implementation of Restitution
Martin, K. D., & Fowle, M. Z. (2020) · Sociological perspectives · doi:10.1177/0731121420970599 · Cited by 12 · see citing works
Smoking and Unemployment: A Photo Elicitation Project
Michalek, A. K., Wong, S. L., Brown-Johnson, C., & Prochaska, J. (2020) · Tobacco Use Insights · doi:10.1177/1179173x20921446 · Cited by 12
Institutional Castling: Military Enlistment and Mass Incarceration in the United States
Sykes, B. L., & Bailey, A. K. (2020) · RSF The Russell Sage Foundation Journal of the Social Sciences · doi:10.7758/rsf.2020.6.1.02 · Cited by 9 · see citing works
Collateral consequences of criminal records from the other side of the pond: How exceptional is American penal exceptionalism?
Corda, A., Rovira, M., & Henley, A. (2023) · Criminology & Criminal Justice · doi:10.1177/17488958231161437 · Cited by 11
Prisons and Health in the Age of Mass Incarceration
Schnittker, J., Massoglia, M., & Uggen, C. (2022) · doi:10.1093/oso/9780190603823.001.0001 · Cited by 24 · see citing works
Self-citation
The Economic Costs of Pretrial Detention
Dobbie, W., & Yang, C. S. (2022) · Brookings Papers on Economic Activity · doi:10.1353/eca.2021.0005 · Cited by 11
Criminal Justice Contact, Residential Independence, and Returns to the Parental Home
Warner, C., & Remster, B. (2021) · Journal of Marriage and the Family · doi:10.1111/jomf.12753 · Cited by 16 · see citing works
Barriers to Sustainability in Poor Marginalized Communities in the United States: The Criminal Justice, the Prison-Industrial Complex and Foster Care Systems
Adams, M., Klinsky, S., & Chhetri, N. (2019) · Sustainability · doi:10.3390/su12010220 · Cited by 11 · see citing works
“The stigma of the felony label has lifelong consequences [63,74].”
BackgroundInfluential
Where the Other 1 Percent Live: An Examination of Changes in the Spatial Concentration of the Formerly Incarcerated
Kirk, D. (2019) · RSF · doi:10.7758/rsf.2019.5.1.11 · Cited by 11 · see citing works
“In total, roughly five million formerly imprisoned individuals live in U.S. neighborhoods at this moment (Shannon et al. 2017).”
Can you Erase the Mark of a Criminal Record? Labor Market Impacts of Criminal Record Remediation
Agan, A. Y., Garin, A., Koustas, D. K., Mas, A., & Yang, C. S. (2024) · Social Science Research Network · doi:10.3386/w32394 · Cited by 10 · see citing works
The Patient Protection and Affordable Care Act and oral health care use among formerly incarcerated people in the United States.
Testa, A., Mungia, R., Lee, J., Jackson, D. B., Fahmy, C., Neumann, A. C., & Samper-Ternent, R. (2023) · The Journal of the American Dental Association (1939) · doi:10.1016/j.adaj.2023.10.011 · Cited by 10
The Disproportionate Mental Health Burden Among Incarcerated Transgender and Gender Diverse People
Rogers, E. M., Krajewski, A. T., & Shuster, S. M. (2022) · Journal of correctional health care · doi:10.1089/jchc.21.10.0109 · Cited by 10 · see citing works
“More than one million individuals are currently held in state or federal prisons in the United States (Carson, 2021), with millions more formerly imprisoned (Shannon et al. , 2017).”
Beyond the Penal Code: The Legal Capacity of Monetary Sanctions in the Corpus of California Law
Verma, A., & Sykes, B. L. (2022) · RSF · doi:10.7758/rsf.2022.8.1.02 · Cited by 10 · see citing works
“Third, there are racial disparities in felony arrests and convictions for possession of a controlled substance (Mooney et al. 2018; Shannon et al. 2017).”
Background
Legal Civic Orders and Equitable Lived Citizenships
Smith, R. M. (2021) · American Political Science Review · doi:10.1017/s000305542100068x · Cited by 10 · see citing works
“38 Though not explicitly provided for in the U.S. Code, dual citizenship is recognized in, e.g., Title 26, Subtitle F, Chapter 79, §7701(a)50 (B). population, or over 26 million people (Shannon et al. 2017).”
Background
The role of stress and absence: How household member incarceration is associated with risky sexual health behaviors
McCauley, E. J. (2021) · Social Science & Medicine (1967) · doi:10.1016/j.socscimed.2021.113718 · Cited by 10 · see citing works
Support seeking, system avoidance, and citizenship: Social safety net usage after incarceration
Bryan, B. (2023) · Criminology (Beverly Hills) · doi:10.1111/1745-9125.12351 · Cited by 9 · see citing works
“…individuals—who now represent more than 2 percent of the total adult U.S. population and almost 7 percent of the adult African American population (Shannon et al., 2017)—face severe financial hardship in the years, and for some, decades, after their release (Bryan, 2019; Harding et al., 2014;…”
When State Violence Comes Home: From Criminal Legal System Exposure to Intimate Partner Violence in a Time of Mass Incarceration
McKay, T. E. (2022) · Journal of Interpersonal Violence · doi:10.1177/08862605221106141 · Cited by 12 · see citing works
Neither mad nor bad? The classification of antisocial personality disorder among formerly incarcerated adults
Schnittker, J., Larimore, S., & Lee, H. (2020) · Social Science & Medicine (1967) · doi:10.1016/j.socscimed.2020.113288 · Cited by 9 · see citing works
Self-citation
Public perceptions of felon-juror exclusion: An exploratory study
Binnall, J. M., & Petersen, N. (2020) · Criminology & Criminal Justice · doi:10.1177/1748895819898518 · Cited by 9
Is it disqualifying? Practitioner responses to criminal offenses in hiring decisions
Kuhn, K. M. (2019) · Equality, Diversity and Inclusion: An International Journal · doi:10.1108/edi-10-2018-0182 · Cited by 9 · see citing works
The contingent effect of incarceration on state health outcomes
Uggen, C., Schnittker, J., Shannon, S. K. S., & Massoglia, M. (2012) · SSM: Population Health · doi:10.1016/j.ssmph.2022.101322 · Cited by 9
Self-citation
Criminal Record Stigma in the Labor Market for College Graduates: A Mixed Methods Study
Cerda-Jara, M., & Harding, D. J. (2024) · Sociological Science · doi:10.15195/v11.a2 · Cited by 9 · see citing works
“Between 70 million and 100 million Americans have a criminal record (almost one-third of the country’s population), and eight percent of all adults have a felony record (Vallas and Dietrich 2014; Shannon et al. 2017).”
Background
From victimhood to victimcould: Hypothetical injury and the ‘criminalization’ of Donald Trump
Higgins, K. (2025) · European Journal of Cultural Studies · doi:10.1177/13675494251345268 · Cited by 8
“The convictions have added Trump to the ranks of the approximately 19 million US citizens with prior felony convictions (Prison Policy Initiative, 2020), among whom African American men are significantly overrepresented (see Shannon et al., 2017).”
Racial Equity in Eligibility for a Clean Slate under Automatic Criminal Record Relief LawsPreprint
Mooney, A. C., Skog, A., & Lerman, A. (2022) · Social Science Research Network · doi:10.2139/ssrn.4137869 · Cited by 8 · see citing works
“The Plurality of Perspectives on Monetary Sanctions”: An Introductory Essay
Martin, K. D. (2020) · Sociological Perspectives · doi:10.1177/0731121420970676 · Cited by 8 · see citing works
Effects of a voter initiative on disparities in punishment severity for drug offenses across California counties.
Mooney, A. C., Neilands, T., Giannella, E., Morris, M., Tulsky, J., & Glymour, M. (2019) · Social Science & Medicine (1967) · doi:10.1016/j.socscimed.2019.03.010 · Cited by 8 · see citing works
Handbook on the Consequences of Sentencing and Punishment Decisions
Huebner, B. M., & Frost, N. A. (2018) · doi:10.4324/9780429466380 · Cited by 8
“An additional 5 million people previously served time in prison and 20 million people in the U.S. have a felony conviction (Shannon et al., 2017; see also Muller & Wildeman, 2016).”
Background
Incarceration Exposure, Biological Aging, and Depression Symptoms in an African American Sample of Older Adults
Berg, M. T., Riley, K., Lei, M.-K., & Simons, R. L. (2024) · Journal of Aging and Health · doi:10.1177/08982643241257065 · Cited by 7 · see citing works
“In fact, recent estimates suggest that more than two million individuals in the United States are incarcerated and nearly ﬁ ve million were formerly in prison or on parole (Shannon et al., 2017).”
A raceless legal psychology in a system marked by race
Gonzales, R. M., & Plaut, V. C. (2024) · Journal of Social Issues · doi:10.1111/josi.12605 · Cited by 9 · see citing works
Criminal Justice Reform and Inequality
Wakefield, S. (2022) · American Journal of Criminal Justice · doi:10.1007/s12103-022-09717-1 · Cited by 7 · see citing works
“…to police surveillance and violence (Edwards et al., 2021; Geller & Fagan, 2019) and arrest (Brame et al., 2014) to misdemeanor (Kohler-Hausmann, 2013) and felony conviction (Shannon et al., 2017) and incarceration (Pettit & Western, 2004), stark disparities are entrenched and well-documented.”
BackgroundSelf-citation
Cumulative Risks of Multiple Criminal Justice Outcomes in New York City
Hepburn, P., Kohler‐Hausmann, I., & Medina, A. Z. (2019) · Demography · doi:10.1007/s13524-019-00781-7 · Cited by 11 · see citing works
Calculating the posterior odds from a single-match DNA database search
Wixted, J., Christenfeld, N., & Rouder, J. N. (2019) · Law, Probability and Risk · doi:10.1093/lpr/mgz001 · Cited by 7
“For example, Shannon et al. (2017) estimated the size of the U.S. criminal population at 19.8 million (6% of the current U.S. population) as of 2010 based on the number of people who have ever been convicted of a felony, whether or not they served time in prison.”
BackgroundInfluential
The lasting impact of incarceration: A qualitative thematic analysis of mental health in formerly incarcerated Black men
Addison, H., Richmond, T. S., Ghose, T., & Jacoby, S. F. (2025) · Social Science & Medicine · doi:10.1016/j.socscimed.2025.118244 · Cited by 9 · see citing works

Authors: Shannon, S. K. S., Uggen, C., Schnittker, J., Thompson, M., Wakefield, S., & Massoglia, M.
Affiliations: University of Georgia (US)
University of Minnesota (US)
University of Pennsylvania (US)
Portland State University (US)
Rutgers, The State University of New Jersey (US)
University of Wisconsin–Madison (US)
Corresponding author: Shannon, Sarah K. S.
ORCID: Shannon, Sarah K. S.
Uggen, Christopher
Schnittker, Jason
Thompson, Melissa
Wakefield, Sara
Venue: Demography
Publisher: Duke University Press
Published: 2017-09-11
Volume: 54
Issue: 5
Pages: 1795-1818
ISSN: 0070-3370 (ISSN-L)
1533-7790
DOI: 10.1007/s13524-017-0611-1
PMC: PMC5996985
OpenAlex: W2755233168
Cited by: 356
References: 87
Citations by year: 2026: 30 · 2025: 44 · 2024: 41 · 2023: 32 · 2022: 46 · 2021: 36 · 2020: 75 · 2019: 35 · 2018: 13 · 2017: 4
FWCI: 88.95
Type: journal article
Language: en
Open access: bronze
doi.org
Licence: www.springer.com/tdm (unspecified)
Locations: Demography (publishedVersion)
PubMed (publishedVersion)
Europe PMC (PubMed Central) (acceptedVersion)
PubMed Central (acceptedVersion)
PDXScholar (Portland State University) (submittedVersion)
RePEc: Research Papers in Economics (submittedVersion)
Funders: Eunice Kennedy Shriver National Institute of Child Health and Human Development (P2CHD047873, P2CHD041023)
Topics: Social Sciences › Sociology and Political Science › Criminal Justice and Corrections Analysis
Social Sciences › Law › Criminal Justice and Penology
Social Sciences › Sociology and Political Science › Crime Patterns and Interventions
Keywords: felony conviction, prison population, incarceration rates, state-level estimates, African American men, racial disparities in incarceration, criminal justice policy
MeSH terms: Adult, Black or African American, Crime, Demography, Humans, Male, Middle Aged, Mortality, Prisoners, Prisons, Socioeconomic Factors, United States, Life Tables, Databases, Factual, Geographic Information Systems, Racial Groups, Young Adult, Criminals, Spatial Analysis

About these checks

Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.

Statistics and arithmetic are recomputed, not judged.

Confidence bands are shown only for fields calibrated on our annotated test set. None is calibrated yet, so no band is shown.

What counts as a claim ›How we measure confidence ›How we check this ›

Are you an author, or do you see a problem with this page? Request a review