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Cited by 4Criminal Justice and Corrections AnalysisCrime Patterns and InterventionsIndigenous Health, Education, and Rights

Adult Outcomes of Justice Involved Indigenous Youth

Open access
Sittner, Kelley J., Estes, Michelle L.·2023·Race and Justice
DOI 10.1177/2153368720973442PMC PMC10229108
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Abstract

Juvenile arrest serves as a critical turning point in the life-course that disrupts the successful transition to adulthood and carries numerous consequences including diminished socioeconomic status. Despite their disproportionately high rates of contact with the criminal justice system (CJS), Indigenous people’s experiences remain largely invisible in extant research. Further, colonization has left them in an extremely marginalized position in terms of social, economic, and political power, which is compounded by CJS involvement. In the current study, we apply propensity score matching to investigate whether being arrested in adolescence impacts early adult socioeconomic outcomes (i.e., education, employment, and income). Data come from the Healing Pathways project, a longitudinal, community-based participatory study of North American Indigenous young people that includes eight waves of data in adolescence and three waves in early adulthood. We find that being arrested at least once in adolescence is associated with higher rates of unemployment, not completing high school, and low income, and lower rates of full-time employment and post-secondary education in young adulthood (mean age = 26.2 years). Criminal justice system involvement widens existing socioeconomic disparities, and remedying these consequences requires changes in how CJS policies are enacted as well as larger structural changes to address significant inequities in income, education, and employment for Indigenous people.

AI snapshot

Written from the paper’s full text.

TL;DR

Using propensity score matching on longitudinal data from Indigenous youth, the study finds that adolescent arrest predicts worse early adult socioeconomic outcomes, including less education, lower income, and lower full-time employment. The authors argue that criminal justice involvement widens existing socioeconomic disparities for Indigenous people.

Key findings

  • Adolescent arrest had significant treatment effects on all early adult SES outcomes except high school graduation/GED: arrested youth were more likely not to finish high school, less likely to have any postsecondary education, less likely to be employed full-time, more likely to be unemployed, and more likely to be in the lowest income quartile.
  • In the sample, 46% reported being arrested at least once between Waves 2–8 (the Discussion says 45%); adult outcomes included 25% who had not finished high school, 36% who graduated or received a GED, 39% with at least some postsecondary education, 43% employed full-time, and 37% unemployed.
  • Supplemental logistic regressions showed similar results: without controlling for education or employment, the odds of being in the lowest income quartile were almost three times higher for those with an adolescent arrest history (O.R. = 2.83, p < .001); controlling for education and employment, the odds were about two times higher (O.R. = 2.04, p < .05).

Methods

  • Data came from the Healing Pathways project, a longitudinal, community-based participatory study of North American Indigenous youth from the upper Midwest United States and Ontario, Canada; the first phase included eight annual adolescent waves (baseline n = 735, ages 10–12, mean age = 11.1), and the second phase included three early adult waves.
  • The analytic sample focused on 77% (n = 566) who completed both follow-up Waves 9 and 10; arrest was measured from Waves 2–8, and SES outcomes (education, employment, income) were measured at Waves 9/10.
  • Propensity score matching was conducted in Stata 15 using psmatch2; Epanechnikov kernel matching with bandwidth = .05 was selected, matching 85% of the sample (treatment n = 222; control n = 252), followed by regression analyses to examine links among SES indicators.

Limitations

  • Stated: arrest was self-reported rather than based on official records, and the study did not measure incarceration or further justice-system penetration.
  • Stated: generalizability is limited because the sample represents one large Indigenous cultural group residing on or near rural reservations; results should be applied cautiously to other cultural groups and urban Indigenous youth.
  • Stated: propensity score matching cannot account for unobserved variables, lacked community-level covariates such as neighborhood disadvantage, and covariate balance is necessary but not sufficient for bias reduction; the sample’s ethnic homogeneity also prevented isolating ethnicity effects.

Model-written summary. Check it against the paper before relying on it.

Integrity signals

Registry

Crossref · 10.1177/2153368720973442

Cites

64 of 64 references verified0 citation errors · 0 not checkable

Statistics

Nothing to recompute.

Claims the paper makes

7 of 45 cited sources checked · 6 supported · 0 flagged · accuracy not yet measured

  • Premisecitation

    Fewer studies include a direct examination of Indigenous individuals.

    “fewer studies include a direct examination of Indigenous individuals (Ulmer & Bradley, 2019).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim1 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Ulmer & Bradley, 2019 source
  • Premisecitation

    Involvement in the juvenile justice system is related to later offending in adulthood.

    “involvement in the juvenile justice system is related to later offending in adulthood (Gilman et al., 2015; Sittner & Gentzler, 2016), resulting in more contact with the CJS.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim2 of 2 sources checked
    • cites Gilman et al., 2015 source
    • cites Sittner & Gentzler, 2016 source
  • Premisecitation

    There remains sparse research that explicitly focuses on criminal justice system involvement of Indigenous adolescents and resulting adult outcomes.

    “there remains sparse research that explicitly focuses on CJS involvement of Indigenous adolescents and resulting adult outcomes (Ulmer & Bradley, 2019).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim1 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Ulmer & Bradley, 2019 source

      The Introduction (page unavailable) describes research on Native Americans’ criminal justice experiences as relatively sparse. The State Sentencing of Native American Defendants section (page unavailable) identifies only a pair of studies focused on punishment outcomes for Native American youth. Neither passage addresses adult outcomes resulting from adolescent criminal justice involvement, so that part of the claim is unsupported. (LLM, conf=0.84)

      Experimental — accuracy not yet measured
  • Study design and conductcitation

    Propensity score matching was used to match adolescents who were arrested during adolescence with adolescents who had not been arrested based on a broad selection of Wave 1 covariates theoretically and empirically thought to be associated with arrest and with socioeconomic status outcomes.

    “PSM was used to match adolescents who were arrested during adolescence with adolescents who had not been arrested based on a broad selection of Wave 1 covariates theoretically and empirically thought to be associated with arrest (Sittner & Gentzler, 2016) and with SES outcomes.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim1 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Sittner & Gentzler, 2016 source
    • Rests on an assumption: The Wave 1 covariates used in the propensity score matching adequately capture the confounders of the relationship between adolescent arrest and early adult socioeconomic status.
  • Findingown data

    Being arrested at least once in adolescence is associated with lower rates of full-time employment in young adulthood.

    “We find that being arrested at least once in adolescence is associated with significantly less education and income, and lower rates of full-time employment in young adulthood (mean age = 26.2 years).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
    • Rests on an assumption: Self-reported arrest accurately measures actual arrest in adolescence.
    • Rests on an assumption: The Wave 1 covariates used in the propensity score matching adequately capture the confounders of the relationship between adolescent arrest and early adult socioeconomic status.
  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim. 20
  • May combine two claims. 26

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Study design and conductcitation

    Covariates associated with adolescent arrest may change over the course of adolescence.

    “Further, the covariates associated with adolescent arrest may change over the course of adolescence (Sittner & Gentzler, 2016).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim1 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Sittner & Gentzler, 2016 source

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Findingcitation

    The sample of Indigenous young people reported substantial socioeconomic disadvantage, similar to Indigenous peoples across the United States and Canada.

    “The sample of Indigenous young people in the current study, as a group, reported substantial socioeconomic disadvantage, similar to Indigenous peoples across the United States and Canada (Ogunwole, 2006; Statistics Canada, 2006).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim1 of 2 sources checked
    • cites Ogunwole, 2006 source
    • cites Statistics Canada, 2006

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    Without considering education or employment status, the odds of being in the lowest quartile of income were almost three times higher for those with a history of arrest (O.R. = 2.83, p<.001), but only two times higher when controlling for education and employment (O.R. = 2.04, p<.05).

    “For example, without considering education or employment status, the odds of being in the lowest quartile of income almost three times higher for those with a history of arrest (O.R. = 2.83, p<.001), but were only two times higher when controlling for education and employment (O.R. = 2.04, p<.05).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Years of colonization have left Indigenous individuals socially, economically, and politically marginalized, which increases their risk of encountering the criminal justice system.

    “Years of colonialization have left Indigenous individuals around the world socially, economically, and politically marginalized, which increases their risk on encountering the CJS (Cunneen & Tauri, 2019).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Cunneen & Tauri, 2019

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Rates of recidivism are higher among individuals who have been detained, resulting in increased likelihood of further criminal justice system involvement and compounded negative consequences.

    “rates of recidivism are higher among individuals who have been detained, which results in increased likelihood of further involvement in the CJS and compounded negative consequences (Robles-Ramamurthy & Watson, 2019; Sittner Hartshorn et al., 2015).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 2 sources checked
    • cites Robles-Ramamurthy & Watson, 2019 source
    • cites Sittner Hartshorn et al., 2015

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Involvement in the criminal justice system results in diminished educational and employment opportunities and lower socioeconomic status.

    “It results in diminished educational and employment opportunities, lower socioeconomic status (SES) (Pettit & Western, 2004; Western, 2002), negative mental and physical health outcomes (Massoglia & Pridemore, 2015; Schnittker et al., 2012), family instability (Wakefield & Wildeman, 2014), and substance use/abuse (Bath et al., 2018).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 2 sources checked
    • cites Pettit & Western, 2004 source
    • cites Western, 2002 source

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Many Indigenous communities experience high rates of violent crime, which have been linked to increased criminal justice system involvement.

    “Many Indigenous communities also experience high rates of violent crime (Morgan & Truman, 2018), which have been linked to increased CJS involvement.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Morgan & Truman, 2018

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Colonization among Indigenous individuals has resulted in lower levels of education and full-time employment which impacts lifetime wages, each of which increases the risk of encountering the criminal justice system.

    “colonization among Indigenous individuals has resulted in lower levels of education, and full-time employment which impacts lifetime wages, each of which increases the risk of encountering the CJS as we previously mentioned (Cunneen & Tauri, 2019).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Cunneen & Tauri, 2019

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation

    Disparities accumulate throughout the juvenile justice process, indicating that larger levels of inequality are seen as an individual moves through the system.

    “Disparities accumulate throughout the juvenile justice process indicating that larger levels of inequality are seen as an individual moves through the system (Rodriguez, 2010).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Rodriguez, 2010 source

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Due to concentrated disadvantage within Indigenous communities, individuals are more likely to have a friend, family member, or know someone who has experienced incarceration, which can contribute to being involved in the criminal justice system.

    “Due to concentrated disadvantage within Indigenous communities, individuals are more likely to have a friend, family member, or know someone who has experienced incarceration, which can contribute to being involved in the CJS (Farrington et al., 2001).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Farrington et al., 2001 source

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    The long history of colonization has resulted in high rates of poverty, mental health issues, and substance use/abuse, all of which increase the likelihood of coming into contact with the criminal justice system.

    “The long history of colonization has resulted in high rates of poverty, mental health issues, and substance use/abuse (Cunneen & Tauri, 2019), all of which have been shown to increase the likelihood of coming into contact with the CJS.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Cunneen & Tauri, 2019

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Stereotypes about Indigenous individuals shape their interactions with the criminal justice system and result in higher rates of stops, searches, and arrests along with harsher sentences.

    “stereotypes about Indigenous individuals, which are conceived in colonial thought, shape their interactions with the CJS and result in higher rates of stops, searches, and arrests along with harsher sentences (Cunneen & Tauri, 2016).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Cunneen & Tauri, 2016 source

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Being involved in the juvenile justice system decreases rates of high school graduation, which impacts employment opportunities and income.

    “Being involved in the juvenile justice system has been shown to decrease rates of high school graduation which impact employment opportunities and income (Robles-Ramamurthy & Watson, 2019).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Robles-Ramamurthy & Watson, 2019 source

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Colonization has left Indigenous individuals in an extremely marginalized position in terms of social, economic, and political power, making it less likely for them to resist discriminatory criminal justice system practices.

    “colonization has left Indigenous individuals in an extremely marginalized position in terms of social, economic, and political power (Cunneen & Tauri, 2019) making it less likely for them to be able to resist discriminatory CJS practices (Bachman et al., 2009).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 2 sources checked
    • cites Cunneen & Tauri, 2019

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

    • cites Bachman et al., 2009

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Study design and conductown data

    Generalizing to urban Indigenous youth from the same cultural group should be done cautiously.

    “The sample also resides on or near rural reservations, and generalizing to urban Indigenous youth from the same cultural group should also be done cautiously.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationown data

    The high arrest rate in the sample (45%) suggests that certain tenets of Indigenous criminology manifest within the sample, such as over policing and harsher punishment.

    “Our sample further shows that almost half (45%) of participants had been arrested a least one time during the study period, suggesting that certain tenants of Indigenous criminology manifest within our sample, such as over policing and harsher punishment (Cunneen & Tauri, 2016).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Cunneen & Tauri, 2016 source

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Indigenous communities often experience high rates of mental health issues and substance use/abuse, both of which increase the likelihood of coming into contact with the criminal justice system.

    “Indigenous communities often experience high rates of mental health issues, along with substance use/abuse (Sarche & Spicer, 2008), both of which increase the likelihood of coming in to contact with the CJS system.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Sarche & Spicer, 2008 source

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Study design and conductnone given

    Tribal resolutions from the eight communities were obtained in which the study goals, interview procedures, and sampling protocol were approved.

    “For both phases, tribal resolutions from the eight communities were obtained in which the study goals, interview procedures, and sampling protocol were approved.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisereasoning

    The association between arrest and negative outcomes is potentially due to a selection effect and confounding variables associated with both arrest and negative outcomes.

    “the association between arrest and negative outcomes is potentially due to a selection effect (i.e, who is more likely to be arrested) and to confounding variables associated with both arrest and negative outcomes.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

    Study design and conductnone given

    The original study included 735 adolescents, with a response rate of 74%, and high retention rates throughout the study, ranging from 96% at Wave 2 to 82% at Wave 8.

    “The original study included 735 adolescents, with a response rate of 74%, and high retention rates throughout the study, ranging from 96% at Wave 2 to 82% at Wave 8.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

    Study design and conductown data

    Over three-quarters (77%, n=566) completed both follow-up waves, which is the focus of the current study.

    “Over three-quarters (77%, n=566) completed both follow-up waves, which is the focus of the current study.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).

    Study design and conductnone given

    CBPR principles informed all aspects of the study.

    “CBPR principles informed all aspects of the study.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Study design and conductown data

    After matching, none of the covariate comparisons reached statistical significance and standardized bias was below 10% for all covariates, indicating the two groups were sufficiently similar.

    “After matching, none of the comparisons reached statistical significance and the SB was below 10% for all of the covariates, indicating that the two groups were sufficiently similar on the covariates.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

    Study design and conductnone given

    All interviewers were enrolled members or spouses of enrolled members of the tribal communities and underwent intensive training annually in personal interviewing procedures and data protections.

    “All interviewers were enrolled members or spouses of enrolled members of the tribal communities, and all underwent intensive training annually in personal interviewing procedures and data protections.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationreasoning

    Arrested youth had lower levels of education and income which can impede the achievement of other indicators of adulthood.

    “Arrested youth also had lower levels of education and income which can impede the achievement of other indicators of adulthood.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim. May combine two claims.

    Study design and conductcitation

    Covariate balance is necessary but not sufficient for bias reduction.

    “Although covariate balance between the control and treatment groups was achieved, Shadish (2013) cautions that “balance is necessary, but not sufficient, for bias reduction” (p. 135).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Shadish, 2013

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • May combine two claims.

    Study design and conductcitation

    Self-reports of arrest are widely used and generally regarded as valid.

    “However, self-reports are widely used and generally regarded as valid (Thornberry & Krohn, 2000).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Thornberry & Krohn, 2000

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • May combine two claims.

    Study design and conductcitation

    Following Apel and Sweeten (2010), all covariates temporally precede treatment and the early adult socioeconomic status in Wave 9.

    “Following Apel and Sweeten (2010), all of the covariates temporally precede treatment (i.e., adolescent arrest in Waves 2–8) and the early adult SES in Wave 9.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Apel & Sweeten, 2010

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim. May combine two claims.

    Study design and conductreasoning

    To ensure proper temporal ordering with the Wave 1 covariates used to calculate the propensity score, only past-year arrest data from Waves 2-8 were used, and any adolescents who reported ever being arrested at Wave 1 (n=7) were excluded from the analysis.

    “To ensure proper temporal ordering with the Wave 1 covariates used to calculate the propensity score, we only used past-year arrest data from Waves 2–8, and excluded from the analysis any adolescents who reported ever being arrested at Wave 1 (n=7).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based).

    Premisenone given

    Adolescents who are arrested may be qualitatively different than those who are not arrested.

    “adolescents who are arrested may be qualitatively different than those who are not arrested.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Propensity score matching helps overcome the limits of observational studies by mimicking the randomization process and minimizing the effects of selection and confounding.

    “Propensity score matching models have been commonly used in criminological research (Apel & Sweeten, 2010) and help, in part, to overcome the limits of observational studies by mimicking the randomization process and minimizing the effects of selection and confounding.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Apel & Sweeten, 2010

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

    Study design and conductnone given

    Community research councils were created at all sites and were involved in establishing study goals, adapting and developing measures, and disseminating results back to their communities.

    “Community research councils (CRCs) were created at all sites and were involved in establishing study goals, adapting and developing measures, and disseminating results back to their communities.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S3 (load-bearing).

    Study design and conductreasoning

    Results should be applied cautiously to young people from different cultural groups.

    “The sample represents one of the largest Indigenous cultural groups in North America, but the results of the current study should be applied cautiously to young people from different cultural groups.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Study design and conductown data

    In the follow-up study, retention rates in waves 9 and 10 were 61.6% and 69.8%, respectively.

    “In the follow-up study, retention rates in waves 9 and 10 were 61.6% and 69.8%, respectively.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Study design and conductown data

    The study was unable to examine whether further penetration into the justice system is more impactful for later SES.

    “Relatedly, the adolescents were not asked for information about incarceration and we were unable to examine whether further penetration into the justice system is more impactful for later SES, as suggested by other studies (Apel & Powell, 2019; Dennison & Demuth, 2018).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 2 sources checked
    • cites Apel & Powell, 2019 source
    • cites Dennison & Demuth, 2018

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

    Study design and conductown data

    The young adult sample demographics changed somewhat from baseline, but the only significant difference was that slightly more women than men were interviewed, with 54.1% of the follow-up Wave 9/10 sample being female.

    “The young adult sample demographics changed somewhat from baseline, but the only significant difference was that slightly more women than men were interviewed, with 54.1% of the follow-up Wave 9/10 sample being female.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based). May combine two claims.

    Interpretationnone given

    CJS involvement for Indigenous people is an important social determinant that likely exacerbates many existing inequities.

    “However, CJS involvement for Indigenous people is an important social determinant that likely exacerbates many existing inequities.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim
37 of 37

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    The Healing Pathways sample is representative of North American Indigenous young people for the purpose of generalizing the arrest–socioeconomic status findings.

    “Data come from the Healing Pathways project, a longitudinal, community-based participatory study of North American Indigenous young people that includes eight waves of data in adolescence and three waves in early adulthood.”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    Self-reported arrest accurately measures actual arrest in adolescence.

    “Adolescents were asked if they had ever been arrested (Wave 1) or arrested in the past year (Waves 2–8).”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    The Wave 1 covariates used in the propensity score matching adequately capture the confounders of the relationship between adolescent arrest and early adult socioeconomic status.

    “PSM was used to match adolescents who were arrested during adolescence with adolescents who had not been arrested based on a broad selection of Wave 1 covariates theoretically and empirically thought to be associated with arrest (Sittner & Gentzler, 2016) and with SES outcomes.”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    Arrest in adolescence is a critical turning point in the life-course that can disrupt the successful transition to adulthood.

    “Arrest serves as a critical turning point in the life-course that can disrupt the successful transition to adulthood.”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    Indigenous youth are understudied in research examining the consequences of criminal justice system involvement.

    “Although Indigenous youth are understudied in research examining the consequences of criminal justice system involvement, available evidence suggests that justice involvement for Indigenous youth carries significant consequences for later health, family stability, substance use/abuse, and especially relevant for the current study, socioeconomic status.”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    Justice involvement for Indigenous youth carries significant consequences for later health, family stability, substance use/abuse, and socioeconomic status.

    “Although Indigenous youth are understudied in research examining the consequences of criminal justice system involvement, available evidence suggests that justice involvement for Indigenous youth carries significant consequences for later health, family stability, substance use/abuse, and especially relevant for the current study, socioeconomic status.”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    The control group represents a valid counterfactual for the treatment group's expected SES had they not been arrested during adolescence.

    “The control group represents a counterfactual for the expected SES of the treatment group had they not been arrested during adolescence.”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    The covariates included in the propensity score model are sufficient to account for selection into arrest (no unobserved confounding).

    “PSM cannot account for unobserved variables, and, although we included a large variety of self- and parent-reported covariates that have previously been examined as risk factors for arrest, there may be important explanatory variables that were not available.”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    Indigenous people are over-represented in the justice system, both in adolescence and in adulthood.

    “Given that Indigenous people are over-represented in the justice system, both in adolescence and in adulthood, the consequences of justice system involvement can attach to large portions of the Indigenous population in many communities.”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    The effects of colonization continue to be felt in Indigenous communities, including the increased likelihood of contact with the CJS.

    “The effects of colonization continue to be felt in Indigenous communities, including the increased likelihood of contact with the CJS.”
10 of 10

Self-check

Percentages, sums and reported differences re-computed from the paper’s own numbers.

Each contradiction between two passages listed here was confirmed by an independent check.

  • Matched sample exceeds the stated number on common support

    Major

    The reported treatment and control group sizes total 474 matched cases, but the selected matching method is said to have only 467 of 474 cases on common support.

  • Participants completing both follow-up waves exceed retention in either wave

    Major

    The proportion completing both Waves 9 and 10 cannot exceed the proportion retained in either individual wave. Yet 77% are said to have completed both, while retention was 61.6% in Wave 9 and 69.8% in Wave 10.

2 of 2

Cites

Flagged first, then by citations

Research works printed but not linked: 6

  1. Bachman R., 2009, Criminal justice in Native America, 197
  2. Cross T., 2008, Poverty & Race Research Action Council, 17, 19
  3. Jones C., 2006, BOCSAR NSW Crime and Justice Bulletins, 12
  4. Office of the Correctional Investigator, 2016, Annual Report of the Office of the Correctional Investigator 2015-2016
  5. Tauri J. M., 2014, African Journal of Criminology and Justice (AJCJS) Studies, 8, 20
  6. Thornberry T. P., 2000, Criminal Justice 2000: Innovations in measurement and analysis, 33

Cited by

Sorted by citations

Related

Authors
Sittner, K. J., & Estes, M. L.
Affiliations
Oklahoma State University (US)
Corresponding author
Sittner, Kelley J.
ORCID
Venue
Race and Justice
Publisher
SAGE Publications
Published
2020-11-20
Volume
13
Issue
3
Pages
279-302
ISSN
2153-3687 (ISSN-L)
DOI
10.1177/2153368720973442
PMC
PMC10229108
OpenAlex
W3107518926
Cited by
4
References
63
Citations by year
2024: 2 · 2022: 1 · 2021: 1
FWCI
0.66
Type
journal article
Language
en
Open access
Licence
journals.sagepub.com/page/policies/text-and-data-mining-license (tdm)
Locations
  • Race and Justice (publishedVersion)
  • PubMed (publishedVersion)
  • PubMed Central (submittedVersion)
Funders
  • National Institute of Mental Health (MH67281)
  • National Institute on Drug Abuse (DA039912, DA13580)
  • National Institute on Alcohol Abuse and Alcoholism (AA020299)
Topics
  • Social Sciences › Sociology and Political Science › Criminal Justice and Corrections Analysis
  • Social Sciences › Sociology and Political Science › Crime Patterns and Interventions
  • Social Sciences › Health › Indigenous Health, Education, and Rights
Keywords
Indigenous youth, juvenile arrests, criminal justice involvement, coming of age, socioeconomic outcomes, educational attainment, employment, income, indigenous peoples, colonization, structural inequality

About these checks

Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.

Claims read by deepseek-v4.1-flash under definition version 3 (extract-v3) on 2026-10-27.

Classified by jev-1.13-20260917 (gold-guideline-v0.2) on 2026-10-27.

Cited sources are checked by gpt-6-sol.

Statistics and arithmetic are recomputed, not judged.

Confidence bands are shown only for fields calibrated on our annotated test set. None is calibrated yet, so no band is shown.

What counts as a claim ›How we measure confidence ›How we check this ›

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