Make Social Media Social Again: How Platform Interoperability Can Fix Social Media and Future‐Proof Democracy

Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

Unpacking social media platform heterogeneity challenges traditional perspectives that focus on a handful of US corporate platforms operating in Western democratic countries.

“Unpacking social media platform heterogeneity challenges traditional perspectives, such as those of Castelló et al. (2025) and Cennamo and Karanović (2025), who focus on a handful of US corporate platforms operating in Western democratic countries.”

• cites Castelló et al. (2025)Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

• cites Cennamo and Karanović (2025) sourceDisputed

  The paper does not confine its discussion to platforms operating in Western democracies. In “How Social Media Platforms Can Empower Democratic Resilience” (page unavailable), it discusses participation across the globe, especially in authoritarian regimes; “Limits of SMPs’ Current Governance Models” also discusses content moderation in India and Thailand. These passages contradict the citing sentence’s characterization of its geographic focus. (LLM, conf=0.84)

  Checked by a reasoning model — may be wrong.

  Experimental — accuracy not yet measured

May combine two claims.

Corporate managers are neither elected by the public nor are their actions controlled by democratic institutions and procedures.

“As Scherer and Palazzo (2011, p. 907) remind us, 'corporate managers are neither elected by the public', nor are their actions 'controlled by democratic institutions and procedures'.”

• cites Scherer and Palazzo (2011) sourcePartly supported

  In “Corporate Responsibility on Globalized Markets: A New Perspective” (p. 907), the paper says corporate managers are not elected by the public. It says their political interventions in global public policy are not sufficiently controlled by democratic institutions and procedures—not that their actions generally are uncontrolled. The citing sentence omits both qualifications. (LLM, conf=0.88)

  Experimental — accuracy not yet measured

May combine two claims.

Competition among filters addresses the moderation problem; people who want safe spaces can have them.

“As put by Van Alstyne (2024, p. 31), 'competition among filters addresses the moderation problem.People who want safe spaces can have them'.”

• cites Van Alstyne, 2024 sourceSupported

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Van Alstyne (2024) emphasizes several analogies used to calibrate regulation in the US telecommunications sector.

“Van Alstyne (2024) emphasizes several analogies used to calibrate regulation in the US telecommunications sector.”

• cites Van Alstyne (2024) sourcePartly supported

  The Abstract (page unavailable) discusses several analogies—including publishers, common carriers, the marketplace of ideas, and a city parade—to assess how social media platforms should be regulated. It does not present them as analogies used to calibrate regulation across the US telecommunications sector; its focus is social media. (LLM, conf=0.84)

  Experimental — accuracy not yet measured

May combine two claims.

Social media enables a broad set of stakeholders to express critiques of firm policies, thus reducing the capacity of traditional media and firms' public relations efforts to shape public attention.

“For instance, in the business world, 'social media enables a broad set of stakeholders to express critiques of firm policies', thus 'reduc [ing] the capacity of traditional media and firms' public relations efforts to shape public attention' (Leonel et al., 2024, p. 3175;Etter et al., 2019).”

• cites Leonel et al., 2024Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

• cites Etter et al., 2019 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based).

Since the start of the century, increasing numbers of young people have decided to leave a democratic country in which they had a life to relocate to a nondemocratic country.

“Since the start of the century, increasing numbers of young people have decided to leave a democratic country in which they had a life to relocate to a nondemocratic country (e.g., Dubai, Thailand, Singapore, more recently Saudi Arabia).”

May combine two claims.

When a populist leader is elected, youth satisfaction with democracy increases by 16 percentage points on average, but exhibits no change when office is won by a moderate or status quo politician.

“When that happens, 'youth satisfaction with democracy increases by 16 percentage points on average, but exhibits no change when office is instead won by a moderate or status quo politician' (Foa et al., 2020, p. 26).”

• cites Foa et al., 2020Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based).

None of Discord, Bluesky, Mastodon, Farcaster, and Nostr has implemented 'surveillance capitalism' to date.

“None of these social media platforms, to date, has implemented 'surveillance capitalism'.”

May combine two claims.

Grassroots e-petitioning on social media can compel firms to respond to stakeholders, thus opening up avenues for social movement mobilization.

“Grassroots e-petitioning on social media can compel firms to respond to stakeholders, thus opening up avenues for social movement mobilization (Leonel et al., 2024).”

• cites Leonel et al., 2024Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

May combine two claims.

The concentration of media industries has been increasing slightly since 2004 for content media, while it has been decreasing substantially for platform media, resulting in a slight net decrease in overall concentration thanks to platform entrants.

“Contrary to common belief (Castelló et al., 2025), evidence shows that the concentration of media industries has been increasing slightly since 2004 for content media, while it has been decreasing substantially for platform media, resulting in a slight net decrease in overall concentration thanks to platform entrants (Noam, 2016(Noam, , pp. 1026(Noam, -1027)).”

• cites Noam, 2016 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

May combine two claims.

This rise in satisfaction appears regardless of political leaning, emerging when either left-wing populism or right-wing populism gains power through elections.

“This rise in satisfaction appears regardless of political leaning, emerging when either left-wing populism (as in Greece, Spain, Mexico, Ecuador) or rightwing populism (as in Austria, Hungary, Brazil, Poland) gains power through elections.”

• cites Foa et al., 2020Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

May combine two claims.

Social media document rather than fuel the decline of political democracy while helping revive organizational democracy, including through DAOs.

“This essay argues that social media document (rather than fuel) the decline of political democracy while helping revive organizational democracy, including through 'decentralized autonomous organizations' (DAOs).”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S4 (based). May combine two claims.

Social media's role in the erosion of political democracy has been mischaracterized, and its contribution to renewing organizational democracy has been overlooked by scholars and policymakers alike.

“Social media's role in the erosion of political democracy has been mischaracterized, and its contribution to renewing organizational democracy has been overlooked by scholars and policymakers alike.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based).

Platform interoperability maintains regulators' flexibility across jurisdictions.

“it maintains regulators' flexibility across jurisdictions;”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S4 (based). May combine two claims.

Platform interoperability aligns with democratic values while making digital media truly 'social' again.

“it aligns with democratic values while making digital media truly 'social' again.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based).

Platform interoperability is practically feasible at a reasonable cost.

“Interoperability thus represents a viable answer based on six advantages: practical feasibility; competition on merit; faster complementor innovation; jurisdictional flexibility; unlocking network effects between, rather than just within platforms; and alignment with democratic values.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based).

Platform interoperability levels the competitive playing field by enabling network effects not only within, but also between platforms.

“it levels the competitive playing field by enabling network effects not only within, but also between platforms;”

May combine two claims.

Platform interoperability can make social media social again and future-proof democracy.

“Platform interoperability can make social media social again and future-proof democracy.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based).

Due to trade-offs in platform design, no single service can deliver free speech, free usage, and safe usage simultaneously.

“Due to trade-offs in platform design, no single service can deliver free speech, free usage, and safe usage simultaneously.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based).

Platform interoperability fosters innovation by complementors.

“it fosters innovation by complementors;”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based). May combine two claims.

In family businesses, authority is typically derived from heredity, not employee consent, whereas in religious organizations, authority is often derived from divine right.

“In family businesses, authority is typically derived from heredity, not employee consent, whereas in religious organizations, authority is often derived from divine right.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S4 (based).

Pluralism would ensure that viable alternatives can thrive beside centralized ML platforms that maximize ad revenue through targeted display of clickbait content.

“Among other advantages, pluralism would ensure that viable alternatives can thrive beside centralized machine learning (ML) platforms that maximize ad revenue through targeted display of clickbait content (e.g., Instagram).”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).

Even political democracies do not run democratically their own government organizations.

“Ironically, even political democracies do not run democratically their own government organizations (e.g., cabinet, government agencies, state-owned corporations).”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based).

Social media could over-concentrate power if, in the future, a few large but siloed platforms ended up shrinking viewpoint diversity.

“Yet, despite giving everyone a voice and the ability to organize across borders, social media could over-concentrate power if, in the future, a few large but siloed platforms ended up shrinking viewpoint diversity -the oxygen of democracy.”

May combine two claims.

Platform interoperability makes platform size matter less and platform quality matter more.

“it makes platform size matter less and platform quality matter more;”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

Surveillance capitalism always involves a combination of centralized ML and advertiser revenue, and can be implemented by digital platforms outside the social media sector, such as search engines and smartphone operating systems.

“if surveillance capitalism always involves a combination of centralized ML and advertiser revenue, the strategy can be implemented by digital platforms outside the social media sector -for example, by search engines and by smartphone operating systems (Zuboff, 2022).”

• cites Zuboff, 2022 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable).

This narrow focus is limiting our ability to envision what democracy-enhancing regulation might look like because it overlooks the crucial role that social media platforms can play in autocracies, in organizations, and outside corporate control.

“This narrow focus is limiting our ability to envision what democracy-enhancing regulation might look like because it overlooks the crucial role that social media platforms can play (i) in autocracies, by challenging the status quo; (ii) in organizations, by enabling democratic governance; and (iii) outside the sphere of corporate control, by providing public infrastructure”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based).

When young people read on social media about low tax rates, drug-free streets, good schools, and reliable healthcare in stable polities led by benevolent autocrats, they begin to wonder whether alternatives to democracy might be worth exploring.

“So, when they read on social media about low tax rates, drug-free streets, good schools, and reliable healthcare in stable polities led by benevolent autocrats, they begin to wonder whether alternatives to democracy might be worth exploring.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S4 (based). May combine two claims.

These democratic benefits of social media can only materialize when digital platforms truly enable free speech, give users equal opportunities to join the conversation independently of socio-economic background, and do not bias participation by exposing some users to harm.

“These democratic benefits of social media can only materialize when digital platforms truly enable free speech, give users equal opportunities to join the conversation (independently of their socio-economic background), and do not bias participation by exposing some users to harm.”

May combine two claims.

In this context, social media platforms have mostly been documenting the growing public frustration with political democracy, while making highly visible some possible alternatives to democratic government.

“In this context, social media platforms have mostly been documenting the growing public frustration with political democracy, while making highly visible some possible alternatives to democratic government.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

In non-Western countries, including Pakistan, Bangladesh, the Philippines, and Turkey, democracy began to recede in the mid-1990s.

“Meanwhile, in non-Western countries, including Pakistan, Bangladesh, the Philippines, and Turkey, democracy began to recede in the mid-1990s (The Economist Intelligence Unit, 2024).”

• cites The Economist Intelligence Unit, 2024Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S4 (based).

By explicitly recognizing social media's institutional role in democracies, governments give regulators a legitimate mandate to oversee the industry and act if necessary.

“By explicitly recognizing social media's institutional role in democracies, governments give regulators a legitimate mandate to oversee the industry and act if necessary.”

May combine two claims.

Those exiting democracies do not specifically seek out autocracies, but they no longer view the absence of democratic government as a deal-breaker.

“While those exiting democracies do not specifically seek out autocracies, they no longer view the absence of democratic government as a deal-breaker, as they certainly would have 30 years ago.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).

Social media have fostered diversity in the media industry by spawning dozens of platforms with various value propositions.

“Besides de-concentration, social media have also fostered diversity in the media industry by spawning dozens of platforms with various value propositions.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

With taxes at their all-time high since WWII and failing public infrastructure, many among the youth wonder where all the money is going.

“With taxes at their all-time high since WWII and failing public infrastructure, many among the youth wonder 'where all the money is going' (@Jamie_IF, 2024).”

• cites @Jamie_IF, 2024Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based). May combine two claims.

Social media platforms enable the free expression of diverse viewpoints and new ideas in an online environment that lets people cooperate at scale.

“Social media platforms, now on the forefront, enable the free expression of diverse viewpoints and new ideas in an online environment that lets people cooperate at scale.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).

Digitally enabled democracy has been on the rise, propelled by initiatives involving platforms, protocols, and software tools.

“Digitally enabled democracy has been on the rise, propelled by initiatives involving platforms, protocols, and software tools ranging from the more innocuous (e.g., Twitter polls to survey one's followers) to the more radical (e.g., Wikileaks' encrypted drop box to force government transparency).”

May combine two claims.

Certain choices of core technology prefigure certain platform designs, which then make certain business models more competitive and viable.

“certain choices of core technology prefigure certain platform designs (e.g., Gulati et al., 2026), which then make certain business models more competitive than others, and thus more viable.”

• cites Gulati et al., 2026 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).

Social trust in the media, the government, and universities has declined since the early 1970s.

“Indeed, social trust in the media, the government, and universities has declined since the early 1970s.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based).

Other platform configurations can foster democratic engagement by building authority dispersion into their design.

“Other platform configurations, by contrast, can foster democratic engagement by building authority dispersion into their design”

May combine two claims.

Comparable US proposals, such as the 2023 Algorithmic Accountability Act, have stalled, with scant evidence of voluntary uptake by US platform corporations.

“comparable US proposals, such as the 2023 Algorithmic Accountability Act, have stalled, with scant evidence of voluntary uptake by US platform corporations”

• cites 2023 Algorithmic Accountability ActNot matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

May combine two claims.

Wealth and income inequality are among the few variables that covary with, and plausibly explain, growing dissatisfaction with democracy.

“To explain this increasingly lower appeal of democracy, Foa and colleagues need not mention social media, whose growth occurred after 2006; instead, they bring up evidence that, over the long term, 'wealth and income inequality' are 'among the few variables that covary' with, and plausibly explain growing dissatisfaction with democracy.”

• cites Foa et al., 2020Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based).

Social media platforms can implement alternative strategies to surveillance capitalism.

“social media platforms can implement alternative strategies, and when they do, critics do not seem concerned with adverse consequences for democracy.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Some attribute the shortcomings of their home countries to democracy itself, in particular on politicians' obsession with short-term re-election rather than buildup of socially valuable infrastructure for future generations.

“Some even attribute the shortcomings of their home countries to democracy itself -in particular, on politicians' obsession with their short-term re-election, rather than with the buildup of socially valuable infrastructure for future generations (Acemoglu, 2025).”

• cites Acemoglu, 2025Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

May combine two claims.

Against longstanding democratic decline, the election of populist leaders actually increases young voters' satisfaction with democracy, but only temporarily.

“Against this longstanding democratic decline, the election of populist leaders actually increases young voters' satisfaction with democracy, but only temporarily.”

• cites Foa et al., 2020Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).

To date, it has not been possible to process user behavioural data at scale to serve ads cost-effectively on a decentralized platform powered by a public blockchain.

“to date, it has not been possible to process user behavioural data at scale to serve ads cost-effectively on a decentralized platform powered by a public blockchain.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based).

Social media platforms are fostering new forms of organizational democracy that support authority dispersion in lieu of managerial hierarchies and shareholder primacy.

“As this section now discusses, social media platforms are fostering new forms of organizational democracy that support authority dispersion in lieu of managerial hierarchies and shareholder primacy.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S4 (based).

Going forward, nothing guarantees that enough viable platforms will enter and maintain healthy diversity in social media.

“Yet, going forward, nothing guarantees that enough viable platforms will enter and maintain healthy diversity in social media.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Crouch coined the term 'post-democracy' to describe polities where a cross-partisan elite has gradually formed around shared core beliefs, with political alternance making little difference to voters.

“Crouch (2004) coined the term 'post-democracy' -again, before the social media era -to describe polities where a cross-partisan elite has gradually formed around shared core beliefs, with political alternance making little difference to voters as a result.”

• cites Crouch (2004)Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

In 1995, Robert Putnam diagnosed that citizens in established democracies are questioning the effectiveness of their public institutions and that democratic disarray may be linked to a broad and continuing erosion of civic engagement that began a quarter-century earlier.

“In 1995, Robert Putnam famously diagnosed that, 'in the established democracies, […] citizens are questioning the effectiveness of their public institutions' and 'there is reason to suspect that this democratic disarray may be linked to a broad and continuing erosion of civic engagement that began a quarter-century ago' (Putnam, 1995, p. 78).”

• cites Putnam, 1995 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

May combine two claims.

Political democratization plateaued in the early 1990s and, by the mid-1990s, several Western democracies, including the U.S., were showing signs of political decay, distrust, and declining civic and political engagement.

“Political democratization plateaued in the early 1990s and, 'by the mid-1990s, several Western democracies, including the U.S., were showing signs of political decay, distrust, and declining civic and political engagement' (Diamond, 2022, p. 163).”

• cites Diamond, 2022 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based).

Social media's damaging effects on democracy stem from one specific strategic configuration: the centralized ML platform optimized for third-party advertising (Facebook, TikTok, X, Instagram).

“social media's damaging effects on democracy stem from one specific strategic configuration, namely, the centralized ML platform optimized for third-party advertising (Facebook, TikTok, X, Instagram).”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).

A crucial complementor app in an interoperable world is the multihoming client used to cross-post content onto several social media platforms.

“A crucial complementor app in an interoperable world is the multihoming client used to cross-post content onto several social media platforms.”

May combine two claims.

Given pronounced demand heterogeneity, with early and later adopters differing and generations of users clustering by platform, interoperability bridges both platforms and generations, thereby improving social understanding.

“Given pronounced demand heterogeneity, with early and later adopters differing and generations of users clustering by platform (Rietveld and Eggers, 2018), interoperability thus bridges both platforms and generations, thereby improving social understanding.”

• cites Rietveld and Eggers, 2018 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based). May combine two claims.

One such business model optimizes for safe usage and free speech, even if it means users must pay a small fee; in this configuration, it is users who decide how to moderate the content in their feed.

“One such business model optimizes for safe usage and free speech, even if it means users must pay a small fee.In this configuration, it is users who decide how to moderate the content in their feed (e.g., Bluesky, Mastodon, Farcarster, Nostr).”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S4 (based). May combine two claims.

With pluralism, platforms compete in different ways, using a diversity of core technologies and designs, and in equilibrium a pluralist ecosystem welcomes a diversity of business models.

“With pluralism, platforms compete in different ways.They use a diversity of core technologies (e.g., ML, blockchain) and a diversity of designs (e.g., centralized and concentrated, à la X; distributed but centralized, à la Discord; distributed and partly decentralized, à la Bluesky; distributed and decentralized, à la Nostr) (see Table I for examples and Vergne, 2020 on the distinction between Dec”

Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

The goal of safe usage can be achieved by leaving decisions about moderation up to the users, shifting the platform towards a {safe usage, free speech} configuration.

“the goal of safe usage could be achieved by leaving decisions about moderation up to the users, shifting the platform towards a {safe usage, free speech} configuration.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based). May combine two claims.

Advertisers expect centralized algorithms that push targeted ads effectively to the most suitable users; to do that, the platform must concentrate authority in the hands of its managers.

“Advertisers expect centralized algorithms that push targeted ads effectively to the most suitable users.To do that, the platform must concentrate authority in the hands of its managers.”

May combine two claims.

Authority dispersion around moderation means a user is free to speak, but never forced to listen to other users and advertisers deemed undesirable.

“Authority dispersion around moderation means a user is free to speak, but never forced to listen to other users and advertisers deemed undesirable.”

May combine two claims.

Interoperability fosters pluralism but does not replace democratic law-making.

“Interoperability fosters pluralism but does not replace democratic law-making.”

May combine two claims.

In sum, interoperability makes platform size matter less and platform quality matter more, thereby warding off industry concentration and fostering pluralism.

“In sum, interoperability makes platform size matter less and platform quality matter more, thereby warding off industry concentration and fostering pluralism.”

May combine two claims.

Email exhibits strong network effects: its value rises with the size of the user base; yet open protocols keep those effects from becoming monopoly power by making providers interoperable.

“Email exhibits strong network effects: its value rises with the size of the user base.Yet open protocols (SMTP/IMAP) keep those effects from becoming monopoly power by making providers interoperable.”

May combine two claims.

Their corporate owners have no incentive to let complementor apps 'encourage constructive engagement rather than fragmentation', as this would reduce total user engagement with attention-grabbing, revenue-generating content.

“their corporate owners have no incentive to let complementor apps 'encourage constructive engagement rather than fragmentation' (Castelló et al., 2025, this issue), as this would reduce total user engagement with attention-grabbing, revenue-generating content.”

• cites Castelló et al., 2025Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based).

No single social media platform can, on its own, deliver all three core benefits (free speech, free usage, safe usage) in a democracy.

“no single social media platform can, on its own, deliver all three core benefits we expect from a healthy ecosystem in a democracy.”

• AssumptionThe authors state this as an assumption: The three core benefits we expect from a healthy ecosystem in a democracy are free speech, free usage, and safe usage.

May combine two claims.

The recent realization that the platform oligopoly had become powerful enough to rival state authority has triggered crackdowns aimed at regaining political control, both in the USA and China.

“The recent realization that the platform oligopoly had become powerful enough to rival state authority has triggered crackdowns aimed at regaining political control, both in the USA (Lopez, 2025) and China (Zhang, 2025).”

• cites Lopez, 2025Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

• cites Zhang, 2025Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

May combine two claims.

It lowers the breakeven point a complementor must hit on any single platform, unlocking capital for innovative social media services that are not worth developing for today's siloed platforms.

“It lowers the breakeven point a complementor must hit on any single platform, unlocking capital for innovative social media services that are not worth developing for today's siloed platforms.”

May combine two claims.

The proposal for an interoperability mandate is technically feasible and has been shown to work in practice in comparable settings.

“The proposal for an interoperability mandate, aimed at ensuring that users can communicate across platforms, is technically feasible and has been shown to work in practice in comparable settings.”

May combine two claims.

By designing a platform with authority dispersion, each user could decide for themselves which moderation algorithm and content filter to use, resulting in a custom newsfeed suited to the user's safety preferences.

“By designing a platform with authority dispersion (e.g., Mastodon), each user could decide for themselves which moderation algorithm and content filter to use, resulting in a custom newsfeed suited to the user's safety preferences (e.g., Bluesky).”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S4 (based). May combine two claims.

Third-party merchants expect their paid influencer content to not be censorable by non-paying users; here again, the platform must re-centralize to prevent censorship of sponsored content.

“Third-party merchants expect their paid influencer content to not be censorable by non-paying users.Here again, the platform must re-centralize to prevent censorship of sponsored content.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based). May combine two claims.

The tool 'Polis', built for democratic deliberation, could be used in combination with Facebook and X.com to emphasize the views that users share rather than those that divide them (this is currently impossible due to closed APIs and lack of standardization).

“the tool 'Polis', built for democratic deliberation, could be used in combination with Facebook and X. com to emphasize the views that users share rather than those that divide them (this is currently impossible due to closed APIs and lack of standardization).”

May combine two claims.

Social media are well suited to interoperable networking: users have a 'local bias' for adopting the service their friends already use rather than the largest platform overall.

“social media are well suited to interoperable networking: users have a 'local bias' for adopting the service their friends already use rather than the largest platform overall (Lee et al., 2006(Lee et al., , p. 1839)).”

• cites Lee et al., 2006 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based). May combine two claims.

Interoperability mandates are not particularly costly, and their cost need not be borne by taxpayers.

“Interoperability mandates are not particularly costly, and their cost need not be borne by taxpayers.”

May combine two claims.

Over the past two decades, a platform oligopoly, controlled by a handful of US and Chinese mega-corporations, has emerged through anticompetitive practices tacitly condoned by both governments for geopolitical gain.

“Over the past two decades, a platform oligopoly, controlled by a handful of US and Chinese mega-corporations, has emerged through anticompetitive practices tacitly condoned by both governments for geopolitical gain (Zuboff, 2022).”

• cites Zuboff, 2022 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

May combine two claims.

Early integration is ideal, but industries can add interoperability even at mature stages; the banking sector is a case in point, with 'open banking' mandates having been implemented recently in the UK, Brazil, South Korea, and Hong Kong.

“Early integration is ideal, but industries can add interoperability even at mature stages.The banking sector is a case in point, with 'open banking' mandates having been implemented recently in the UK, Brazil, South Korea, and Hong Kong, among others (Ziegler, 2021).”

• cites Ziegler, 2021 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

May combine two claims.

In a freemium model, power users have limited revenue upside and little willingness to pay unless their content gets a visibility advantage; this requires centralization to implement top-down curation tailored to paying customers.

“In the absence of advertisers and merchants, however, power users (e.g., influencers) have limited revenue upside and little willingness to pay unless their content gets a visibility advantage.This, again, requires centralization to implement top-down curation tailored to paying customers.”

• cites Rietveld, 2018 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

May combine two claims.

The decline in the authority of traditional social institutions began before 1990 and has been growing ever since.

“the decline in the authority of traditional social institutions began before the year 1990 and has been growing ever since.”

• cites Fukuyama, 2020 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based). May combine two claims.

Three interoperability protocols have already been developed for social media, thus providing a sound technical basis for further standardization.

“three interoperability protocols have already been developed for social media, thus providing a sound technical basis for further standardization (see Appendix A).”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based). May combine two claims.

Multihoming clients would represent an entirely new market segment along the social media industry's value chain, where a lot of innovation would happen and a lot of value could be captured by incumbents and new complementors alike.

“Multihoming clients would represent an entirely new market segment along the social media industry's value chain, where a lot of innovation would happen and a lot of value could be captured by incumbents and new complementors alike.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S4 (based).

Without interoperability, the network effects that originally made platforms 'social' are there primarily to preserve the interests of today's dominant platforms.

“Without interoperability, the network effects that originally made platforms 'social' are there primarily to preserve the interests of today's dominant platforms.”

May combine two claims.

Providers need not achieve global scale to remain viable; network effects also accrue at the industry level, and not just within branded platforms.

“providers need not achieve global scale to remain viable; network effects also accrue at the industry level, and not just within branded platforms.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S4 (based).

No regulation can compel a social media platform to deliver free speech, free usage, and safe usage simultaneously.

“no regulation can compel a social media platform to deliver free speech, free usage, and safe usage simultaneously.”

• AssumptionThe authors state this as an assumption: The three core benefits we expect from a healthy ecosystem in a democracy are free speech, free usage, and safe usage.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based).

Today, content creators face high opportunity costs when posting on a nascent service with a small user base and no pre-existing following.

“Today, content creators face high opportunity costs when posting on a nascent service with a small user base and no pre-existing following.”

May combine two claims.

Where a platform refrains from editorial control, lets users curate their own feeds, and relies on permissionless server infrastructure, it better aligns with the 'common carrier' analogy and can be plausibly viewed as infrastructure within a free 'marketplace for ideas'.

“Conversely, where a platform refrains from editorial control, lets users curate their own feeds, and relies on permissionless server infrastructure, it better aligns with the 'common carrier' analogy and can be plausibly viewed as infrastructure within a free 'marketplace for ideas'.”

• AssumptionRests on an assumption: Social media platforms will self-select into configurations that solve the trilemma if interoperability is mandated.

May combine two claims.

Free usage is incompatible with full authority dispersion, and that is by design, meaning that regulation cannot change that.

“free usage is incompatible with full authority dispersion -and that is by design, meaning that regulation cannot change that.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based).

To optimize for safe usage, heavy-handed moderation is bound to constrain caricature, parody, and pastiche, resulting in a curb on free speech.

“To optimize for safe usage, we may opt for heavy-handed moderation that is bound to constrain caricature, parody, and pastiche, resulting in a curb on free speech.”

May combine two claims.

Interoperability preserves regulatory flexibility and lets jurisdictions tailor its economic, political, and legal impacts.

“Interoperability has desirable properties in this respect because it preserves regulatory flexibility and lets jurisdictions tailor its economic, political, and legal impacts (see Appendix A for details).”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

The {free usage, safe usage} configuration involving heavy platform moderation, as on YouTube, may be more aligned with the 'publisher' analogy than the {safe usage, free speech} configuration exemplified by Mastodon, Bluesky, or Farcaster.

“The {free usage, safe usage} configuration involving heavy platform moderation, as on YouTube, may be more aligned with the 'publisher' analogy than the {safe usage, free speech} configuration exemplified by Mastodon, Bluesky, or Farcaster.”

• AssumptionRests on an assumption: Social media platforms will self-select into configurations that solve the trilemma if interoperability is mandated.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).

For power users such as influencers, brands, and public authorities, the multihoming experience could be simplified by setting up a unified identity across platforms.

“For power users such as influencers, brands, and public authorities, the multihoming experience could be simplified by setting up a unified identity across platforms”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S4 (based). May combine two claims.

To achieve pluralism, it is not sufficient to grant data rights to users; what is needed is social media protocol interoperability, which requires a regulatory mandate for open standards.

“To achieve pluralism, it is not sufficient to grant data rights to users.What is needed is social media protocol interoperability, which requires a regulatory mandate for open standards.”

Classified as probably not a substantial claim. May combine two claims.

By distributing decision-making about curation and moderation, users are free to speak, but never forced to listen.

“by distributing decision-making about curation and moderation, users are free to speak, but never forced to listen.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based).

In a pluralist social media industry, any user can find a platform that meets their preferences by offering a viable solution to the trilemma.

“In a pluralist social media industry, any user can find a platform that meets their preferences by offering a viable solution to the trilemma.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S4 (based). May combine two claims.

Interoperability neither casts the government as moderator-of-last-resort nor relies on a naïve libertarian bet that industry self-governance will yield a healthy ecosystem.

“By contrast, interoperability neither casts the government as moderator-of-last-resort nor relies on a naïve libertarian bet that industry self-governance will magically yield a healthy ecosystem.”

May combine two claims.

Easier multihoming (enabled by interoperability) leads to healthier competition and decreases the risk of harmful platform dominance.

“With multihoming made easier, competition becomes healthier, and the risk of harmful platform dominance decreases.”

• AssumptionRests on an assumption: Users will choose to multihome when interoperability makes it easier.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S4 (based).

At this stage of the industry's development, pluralism requires a regulatory mandate for platform interoperability letting new entrants onboard users in a multihoming environment that does not destroy pre-existing network effects.

“At this stage of the industry's development, pluralism requires a regulatory mandate for platform interoperability letting new entrants onboard users in a multihoming environment that does not destroy pre-existing network effects.”

• AssumptionRests on an assumption: Social media platforms will self-select into configurations that solve the trilemma if interoperability is mandated.
• AssumptionRests on an assumption: Regulators in large markets are willing and able to mandate interoperability and enforce it.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based).

The competitive playing field is distorted by years of national champion building.

“To level a competitive playing field distorted by years of national champion building, new platform entrants must be able to compete on merit.”

May combine two claims.

Interoperability lets users sample alternatives without materially curtailing current usage, widening their networks as they assess competing offers.

“By enabling content to flow across platforms and complementor apps, interoperability lets users sample alternatives without materially curtailing current usage, widening their networks as they assess competing offers.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based).

There is little empirical evidence that social media platforms empower the 'wrong' politicians who then degrade democracy.

“Likewise, the belief that social media platforms empower the 'wrong' politicians who then degrade democracy is hardly supported by empirical evidence.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based). May combine two claims.

Interoperability resolves the trilemma at the industry level: users can speak and move across platforms, access free or paid options, and curate their own experience without being funnelled into content they do not wish to see.

“Interoperability resolves the trilemma at the industry level: users can speak and move across platforms, access free or paid options, and curate their own experience without being funnelled into content they do not wish to see.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S4 (based). May combine two claims.

An app's native features will never look as good on another app, which preserves product-based competitive advantages; yet, feature parity management enables cross-app network effects, thus boosting the sociality of social media while levelling the competitive playing field.

“An app's native features will never look as good on another app, which preserves product-based competitive advantages; yet, feature parity management enables cross-app network effects, thus boosting the sociality of social media while levelling the competitive playing field.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S4 (based). May combine two claims.

Pluralism is radically different from both the self-regulation status quo proposed by Cennamo and Karanović (2025) and the technocratic public-utility model that Castelló et al. (2025) would have the state enforce.

“Pluralism is radically different from both the self-regulation status quo proposed by Cennamo and Karanović (2025) and the technocratic public-utility model that Castelló et al. (2025) would have the state enforce.”

• cites Cennamo and Karanović (2025) sourceNot checked yet

  Checked before — its earlier verdict is held back until a new check runs.

• cites Castelló et al. (2025)Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

Interoperability is needed to give new platforms implementing the fee-based model a chance to onboard users locked in the platform siloes controlled by Alphabet, ByteDance, Meta, and Tencent.

“To give new platforms implementing this model a chance to onboard users locked in the platform siloes controlled by Alphabet, ByteDance, Meta, and Tencent, interoperability is needed.”

• AssumptionRests on an assumption: Regulators in large markets are willing and able to mandate interoperability and enforce it.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable).

Pluralism aligns with liberal democracy understood as a regime of compromise.

“Pluralism is a fitting organizing principle for social media that aligns with liberal democracy understood as a regime of compromise (Mill, 1865).”

• cites Mill, 1865Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S4 (based). May combine two claims.

Interoperability advances democratic pluralism by enabling crossplatform communication and restoring competitive entry without prescribing a single 'correct' platform design, business model, or approach to moderation.

“It advances democratic pluralism by enabling crossplatform communication and restoring competitive entry -all without prescribing a single 'correct' platform design, business model, or approach to moderation.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S4 (based).

Interoperability is a necessary lever to realize pluralism.

“Interoperability is a necessary lever to realize pluralism.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S4 (based). May combine two claims.

Interoperability lets the social media industry as a whole deliver free speech, free usage, and safe usage.

“Interoperability lets the social media industry as a whole deliver free speech, free usage, and safe usage.”

May combine two claims.

Such fee-based economics deter manipulation while appealing to users who value low-noise feeds and privacy.

“Such economics deter manipulation while appealing to users who value low-noise feeds and privacy.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S4 (based).

Solving the trilemma can only be done at the industry level by nurturing pluralism.

“Solving the trilemma can only be done at the industry level, then, by nurturing pluralism.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S4 (based). May combine two claims.

By connecting cliques of users across platforms, interoperability weakens proprietary siloes and makes digital media truly 'social' again.

“By connecting cliques of users across platforms, interoperability weakens proprietary siloes and makes digital media truly 'social' again.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based).

Every social media platform faces the same trilemma preventing it from delivering at once the three democratic benefits of free speech, free usage, and safe usage.

“Due to inherent trade-offs, every social media platform faces the same trilemma preventing it from delivering at once the three democratic benefits of free speech, free usage, and safe usage (see Figure 1).”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S4 (based).

Pluralism fosters the competitive coexistence of different kinds of platforms, including services that privilege free speech and safe usage over free usage.

“Pluralism fosters the competitive coexistence of different kinds of platforms, including services that privilege free speech and safe usage over free usage.”

May combine two claims.

In a pluralist industry, three categories of platforms coexist and compete, each one delivering two of three benefits with its own configuration of core technology, platform design, and business model.

“In a pluralist industry, three categories of platforms coexist and compete, each one delivering two of three benefits with its own configuration of core technology, platform design, and business model (see Table I).”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S4 (based).

Stronger fact-checking will not solve the problem if people no longer trust fact checkers to begin with.

“The belief that stronger fact-checking will solve the problem is futile if people no longer trust fact checkers to begin with.”