Cited by 731Conservation, Biodiversity, and Resource ManagementLand Use and Ecosystem ServicesWildlife Ecology and Conservation

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Accelerated Human Population Growth at Protected Area Edges

Wittemyer, George, Elsen, Paul, Bean, William T., Burton, A. Coleman O., Brashares, Justin S.·2008·Science

DOI 10.1126/science.1158900

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Abstract

Protected areas (PAs) have long been criticized as creations of and for an elite few, where associated costs, but few benefits, are borne by marginalized rural communities. Contrary to predictions of this argument, we found that average human population growth rates on the borders of 306 PAs in 45 countries in Africa and Latin America were nearly double average rural growth, suggesting that PAs attract, rather than repel, human settlement. Higher population growth on PA edges is evident across ecoregions, countries, and continents and is correlated positively with international donor investment in national conservation programs and an index of park-related funding. These findings provide insight on the value of PAs for local people, but also highlight a looming threat to PA effectiveness and biodiversity conservation.

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Smith, Y. C. E., Smith, D. A. E., Ramesh, T., & Downs, C. T. (2017) · Landscape Ecology · doi:10.1007/s10980-017-0580-1 · Cited by 50
“…of biodiversity (e.g. * 10% of the global forest biome); the majority of species exist beyond the boundaries of PAs (Schmitt et al. 2009; UNEPWCMC 2010) and the efficiency of existing reserves are restricted by the surrounding land-use mosaic (Wittemyer et al. 2008; Bradshaw et al. 2015).”
Background
Population structure and abundance of Sclerocarya birrea (A. Rich) Hochst subsp. birrea in two contrasting land-use systems in Benin.
Gouwakinnou, G. N., Kindomihou, V., Assogbadjo, A. E., & SINSIN, B. A. (2009) · International Journal of Biodiversity and Conservation · doi:10.5897/ijbc.9000112 · Cited by 48
“, 2005) and often characterised by a high growth rate (Wittemyer et al., 2008).”
Remote Sensing Applications in Monitoring of Protected Areas
Wang, Y., Lu, Z., Sheng, Y., & Zhou, Y. (2020) · Remote Sensing · doi:10.3390/rs12091370 · Cited by 55
Conservation implications of rainforest use patterns: mature forests provide more resources but secondary forests supply more medicine
Gavin, M. C. (2009) · Journal of Applied Ecology · doi:10.1111/j.1365-2664.2009.01713.x · Cited by 46
“As is true of many tropical rainforest frontiers regionally and globally (Wittemyer et al. 2008), the buffer zone of the Cordillera Azul is undergoing rapid change driven by high rates of immigration.”
Background
Natural resource management by rural citizens in developing countries: innovations still required
Torquebiau, E. F., & Taylor, R. (2009) · Biodiversity and Conservation · doi:10.1007/s10531-009-9706-3 · Cited by 46
“…rather than repel (as initially thought), human settlement at their edges, a fact which shows that such areas have a value for local people, but also highlights a real biodiversity threat, particularly if such biodiversity is contained within strictly protected areas (Wittemyer et al. 2008).”
Background
Escherichia coli Population Structure and Antibiotic Resistance at a Buffalo/Cattle Interface in Southern Africa
Mercat, M., Clermont, O., Massot, M., Ruppé, É., Garine-Wichatitsky, M. D., Miguel, E., Valls‐Fox, H., Cornélis, D., Andremont, A., Denamur, É., et al. (2015) · Applied and Environmental Microbiology · doi:10.1128/aem.03771-15 · Cited by 46
“As human activities increase, the pressure on natural ecosystems through land encroachment, unsustainable use of natural resources, and fragmentation of habitats tend to expand worldwide (1).”
Background
Postwar wildlife recovery in an African savanna: evaluating patterns and drivers of species occupancy and richness
Gaynor, K. M., Daskin, J. H., Rich, L. N., & Brashares, J. S. (2020) · Animal Conservation · doi:10.1111/acv.12661 · Cited by 44
“However, animal populations in African savannas are declining as a result of land use change (Craigie et al., 2010), human population growth (Wittemyer et al., 2008), climate change (Midgley & Bond, 2015), and armed conflict (Gaynor et al., 2016; Daskin & Pringle, 2018).”
BackgroundSelf-citation
The value of elephants: A pluralist approach
van de Water, A., Henley, M. D., Bates, L. A., & Slotow, R. (2022) · Ecosystem Services · doi:10.1016/j.ecoser.2022.101488 · Cited by 51
Fire in Protected Areas - the Effect of Protection and Importance of Fire Management
Pereira, P., Mierauskas, P., Úbeda, X., Mataix‐Solera, J., & Cerdà, A. (2012) · Environmental Research Engineering and Management · doi:10.5755/j01.erem.59.1.856 · Cited by 44
High Bee and Wasp Diversity in a Heterogeneous Tropical Farming System Compared to Protected Forest
Schüepp, C., Rittiner, S., & Entling, M. H. (2012) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0052109 · Cited by 47
Transvalued Species in an African Forest
Remis, M. J., & Hardin, R. D. (2009) · Conservation Biology · doi:10.1111/j.1523-1739.2009.01290.x · Cited by 45
Use of A tlantic F orest protected areas by free‐ranging dogs: estimating abundance and persistence of use
Paschoal, A. M. D. O., Massara, R. L., Bailey, L. L., Kendall, W. L., Doherty, P. F., Hirsch, A., Chiarello, A. G., & Paglia, A. P. (2016) · Ecosphere · doi:10.1002/ecs2.1480 · Cited by 47
The importance of microhabitat structure in maintaining forest mammal diversity in a mixed land-use mosaic
Smith, Y. C. E., Smith, D. A. E., Ramesh, T., & Downs, C. T. (2017) · Biodiversity and Conservation · doi:10.1007/s10531-017-1360-6 · Cited by 45
“Only *10% of the global forest biome lies within strictly protected areas (Schmitt et al. 2009; UNEP-WCMC 2010) and the sustainability of existing forest reserves are limited by the surrounding land-use mosaic (Wittemyer et al. 2008; Bradshaw et al. 2015).”
Background
Protected area effectiveness against land development in Spain
Rodríguez‐Rodríguez, D., & Vega, J. M. (2018) · Journal of Environmental Management · doi:10.1016/j.jenvman.2018.03.011 · Cited by 45
Africa's apex predator, the lion, is limited by interference and exploitative competition with humans
Everatt, K. T., Moore, J. F., & Kerley, G. I. H. (2019) · Global Ecology and Conservation · doi:10.1016/j.gecco.2019.e00758 · Cited by 48
Determinants of local people's attitude toward conservation and the consequential effects on illegal resource harvesting in the protected areas of Sulawesi (Indonesia)
Lee, T. M., Sodhi, N. S., & Prawiradilaga, D. M. (2009) · Environmental Conservation · doi:10.1017/s0376892909990178 · Cited by 44
“…biodiversity conservation and rural livelihoods (Adams et al. 2004; Sodhi et al. 2004); the probability of wildlife extinction and wildlife-human conflicts appears to be positively associated with human densities fringing PAs (Newmark et al. 1994; Brashares et al. 2001; Wittemyer et al. 2008).”
Background
Analysis on the ecosystem service protection effect of national nature reserve in Qinghai-Tibetan Plateau from weight perspective
Zhang, X., Li, S., & Hu, Y. (2022) · Ecological Indicators · doi:10.1016/j.ecolind.2022.109225 · Cited by 43
Contribution of source–sink theory to protected area science
Hansen, A. J. (2011) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/cbo9780511842399.018 · Cited by 43
Housing development erodes avian community structure in U.S. protected areas
Wood, E. M., Pidgeon, A. M., Radeloff, V. C., Helmers, D. P., Culbert, P. D., Keuler, N. S., & Flather, C. H. (2014) · Ecological Applications · doi:10.1890/12-1992.1 · Cited by 43
The Importance of a Social Science Research Agenda in the Management of Protected Natural Areas, with Selected Examples
Heinen, J. T. (2010) · The Botanical Review · doi:10.1007/s12229-010-9043-y · Cited by 43
“Lastly, many PAs in developing countries, and especially those in which CBCs and tourism operations have been implemented, act as employment draws for people from other areas (Wittemyer et al., 2008).”
Background
Human-crocodile conflict and conservation implications of Saltwater Crocodiles Crocodylus porosus (Reptilia: Crocodylia: Crocodylidae) in Sri Lanka
Amarasinghe, A. A. T., Madawala, M., Karunarathna, S., Manolis, S. C., de Silva, A., & Sommerlad, R. (2015) · Journal of Threatened Taxa · doi:10.11609/jott.o4159.7111-30 · Cited by 43
Land use planning around protected areas: Case studies in four state parks in the Atlantic forest region of southeastern Brazil
Lima, E. A. C. D. F., & Ranieri, V. E. L. (2017) · Land Use Policy · doi:10.1016/j.landusepol.2017.12.020 · Cited by 43
Spatial variation in leopard (Panthera pardus) site use across a gradient of anthropogenic pressure in Tanzania's Ruaha landscape
Abade, L., Cusack, J. J., Moll, R. J., Strampelli, P., Dickman, A., Macdonald, D. W., & Montgomery, R. A. (2018) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0204370 · Cited by 44
Protected areas, household environmental incomes and well-being in the Greater Serengeti-Mara Ecosystem
Jiao, X., Walelign, S. Z., Nielsen, M. R., & Smith‐Hall, C. (2019) · Forest Policy and Economics · doi:10.1016/j.forpol.2019.101948 · Cited by 43
Effectiveness of functional zones in National Nature Reserves for the protection of forest ecosystems in China
Liu, F., Feng, C., Zhou, Y., Zhang, L., Du, J., Huang, W., Luo, J., & Wang, W. (2022) · Journal of Environmental Management · doi:10.1016/j.jenvman.2022.114593 · Cited by 44
Coexisting with wildlife in transfrontier conservation areas in Zimbabwe: Cattle owners’ awareness of disease risks and perceptions of the role played by wildlife
Garine-Wichatitsky, M. D., Miguel, E., Mukamuri, B. B., Garine, É., Wencélius, J., Pfukenyi, D. M., & Caron, A. (2012) · Comparative Immunology Microbiology and Infectious Diseases · doi:10.1016/j.cimid.2012.10.007 · Cited by 43
Contrasting perceptions of ecosystem services of an African forest park
Hartter, J., Solomon, J. N., Ryan, S. J., Jacobson, S. K., & Goldman, A. (2014) · Environmental Conservation · doi:10.1017/s0376892914000071 · Cited by 46
“2004) but has been an important part of the conservation conversation (see Wittemyer et al .”
Shifting maize cultivation and secondary vegetation in the Southern Yucatán: successional forest impacts of temporal intensification
Schmook, B. I. (2010) · Regional Environmental Change · doi:10.1007/s10113-010-0128-2 · Cited by 40
“…the face of increasing land pressures, especially on lands surrounding biological reserves (Figueroa and Sánchez-Cordero 2008; Lawrence et al. 2007; Wittemyer et al. 2008), concerns are raised about the efficacy of shifting cultivation in terms of its potential role in the loss of biotic…”
Background
The efficacy of interventions to protect crops from raiding elephants
Montgomery, R. A., Raupp, J., Mukhwana, M., Greenleaf, A., Mudumba, T., & Muruthi, P. M. (2021) · AMBIO · doi:10.1007/s13280-021-01587-x · Cited by 49
Socio‐economic benefits from protected areas in southeastern Australia
Heagney, E., Kovac, M., Fountain, J., & Conner, N. (2015) · Conservation Biology · doi:10.1111/cobi.12554 · Cited by 41
“…mirrors examples of co-investment from the international literature relating to protected areas in developing countries, where national or international agencies make financial contributions to conservation management, local infrastructure, or associated social projects (Wittemyer et al. 2008).”
Background
′Ha! What is the benefit of living next to the park?′ Factors limiting in-migration next to Tarangire National Park, Tanzania
Davis, A. (2011) · Conservation and Society · doi:10.4103/0972-4923.79184 · Cited by 41
“Additionally, Joppa et al. (2009) address what they see as statistical disparities in the Wittemyer et al. (2008) paper.”
Background
Promoting forest stewardship in the Bolsa Floresta Programme: local livelihood strategies and preliminary impacts
Börner, J., Wunder, S., Reimer, F., Bakkegaard, R. K., Viana, V. M., Tezza, J., Pinto, T. M., Lima, L. H. A., & Marostica, S. (2013) · CGSPace A Repository of Agricultural Research Outputs (Consultative Group for International Agricultural Research) · Cited by 41
Protected areas as a double edge sword: An analysis of factors driving urbanisation in their surroundings
González‐García, A., Palomo, I., Arboledas, M., González, J. A., Múgica, M., Mata, R., & Montes, C. (2022) · Global Environmental Change · doi:10.1016/j.gloenvcha.2022.102522 · Cited by 50
What is the right scale for REDD
Angelsen, A., Streck, C., Peskett, L. M., Brown, J. R., & Luttrell, C. (2008) · CGSPace A Repository of Agricultural Research Outputs (Consultative Group for International Agricultural Research) · Cited by 40

Authors: Wittemyer, G., Elsen, P., Bean, W. T., Burton, A. C. O., & Brashares, J. S.
Affiliations: University of California, Berkeley (US)
Department of Environmental Science, Policy, and Management, University of California at Berkeley, Berkeley, CA 94720, USA.
Corresponding author: Wittemyer, George
Brashares, Justin S.
ORCID: Wittemyer, George
Elsen, Paul
Bean, William T.
Brashares, Justin S.
Venue: Science
Publisher: American Association for the Advancement of Science (AAAS)
Published: 2008-07-04
Volume: 321
Issue: 5885
Pages: 123-126
ISSN: 0036-8075 (ISSN-L)
1095-9203
DOI: 10.1126/science.1158900
OpenAlex: W2093559267
Cited by: 731
References: 20
Citations by year: 2026: 32 · 2025: 19 · 2024: 35 · 2023: 48 · 2022: 43 · 2021: 45 · 2020: 49 · 2019: 44 · 2018: 41 · 2017: 44 · 2016: 37 · 2015: 38 · 2014: 41 · 2013: 52 · 2012: 39
FWCI: 37.06
Type: journal article
Language: en
Open access: closed
Locations: Science (publishedVersion)
PubMed (publishedVersion)
Topics: Physical Sciences › Environmental Science › Global and Planetary Change › Conservation, Biodiversity, and Resource Management
Physical Sciences › Environmental Science › Global and Planetary Change › Land Use and Ecosystem Services
Physical Sciences › Environmental Science › Ecology › Wildlife Ecology and Conservation
Keywords: protected areas, population growth, rural settlement, conservation effectiveness, biodiversity conservation, donor funding, conservation funding, Africa, Latin America
MeSH terms: Conservation of Natural Resources, Financial Support, Humans, Infant, Infant Mortality, International Agencies, Latin America, Population Growth, Poverty, Rural Population, Ecosystem, Africa South of the Sahara, Biodiversity

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