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Accelerated Human Population Growth at Protected Area Edges
Abstract
Protected areas (PAs) have long been criticized as creations of and for an elite few, where associated costs, but few benefits, are borne by marginalized rural communities. Contrary to predictions of this argument, we found that average human population growth rates on the borders of 306 PAs in 45 countries in Africa and Latin America were nearly double average rural growth, suggesting that PAs attract, rather than repel, human settlement. Higher population growth on PA edges is evident across ecoregions, countries, and continents and is correlated positively with international donor investment in national conservation programs and an index of park-related funding. These findings provide insight on the value of PAs for local people, but also highlight a looming threat to PA effectiveness and biodiversity conservation.
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“However, as human populations adjacent to many protected areas are growing rapidly (Wittemyer et al., 2008), colonization and propagule pressures will increase.”
From Scientists' warning on invasive alien species (2020) · cites this paper as Wittemyer et al., 2008
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“Previous studies suggest that both the rate of landuse change and the growth of human populations can be fastest near protected area boundaries ( 13 -16 ), which accelerate the rate of edge degradation through increased livestock production, crop cultivation, and extraction of natural resources such as charcoal and bushmeat.”
From Cross-boundary human impacts compromise the Serengeti-Mara ecosystem (2019) · cites this paper as [13]
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Are protected areas truly protected? The impact of road traffic on vertebrate fauna
Garriga, N., Santos, X., Montori, A., Richter‐Boix, À., Franch, M., & Llorente, G. A. (2012) · Biodiversity and Conservation · doi:10.1007/s10531-012-0332-0 · Cited by 129
“In recent decades, anthropogenic disturbance of wildlife habitats and biota has increased because of human population growth and human–environment interactions (Wittmeyer et al. 2009).”
BackgroundLand-cover change within and around protected areas in a biodiversity hotspot
Bailey, K. M., McCleery, R. A., Binford, M. W., & Zweig, C. L. (2015) · Journal of Land Use Science · doi:10.1080/1747423x.2015.1086905 · Cited by 127
“PAs adjacent to large rural populations often experience higher rates of species extinction, bushmeat hunting, and deforestation but the magnitude of this trend is context-specific and contingent on the nature of the landscape and the effectiveness of border protection (Bleher, Uster, & Bergsdorf, 2006; Karanth, Curra…”
BackgroundPrioritizing core areas, corridors and conflict hotspots for lion conservation in southern Africa
Cushman, S. A., Elliot, N. B., Bauer, D. T., Kesch, K., Bahaa‐el‐din, L., Bothwell, H. M., Flyman, M. V., Mtare, G., Macdonald, D. W., & Loveridge, A. J. (2018) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0196213 · Cited by 119
Global relationships between biodiversity and nature-based tourism in protected areas
Chung, M. G., Dietz, T. M., & Liu, J. (2018) · Ecosystem Services · doi:10.1016/j.ecoser.2018.09.004 · Cited by 140
Exposure of U.S. National Parks to land use and climate change 1900–2100
Hansen, A. J., Piekielek, N. B., Davis, C. R., Haas, J. R., Theobald, D. M., Gross, J., Monahan, W. B., Olliff, T., & Running, S. W. (2013) · Ecological Applications · doi:10.1890/13-0905.1 · Cited by 117
“Studies to date have found that land use is intensifying around many protected areas (DeFries et al. 2005, Wittemyer et al. 2008, Radeloff et al. 2010, Wade and Theobald 2010, Davis and Hansen 2011, Leroux and Kerr 2013).”
BackgroundRamalho, C. E., Laliberté, É., Poot, P., & Hobbs, R. J. (2014) · Ecology · doi:10.1890/13-1239.1 · Cited by 116
Watson, F. G. R., Becker, M. S., McRobb, R., & Kanyembo, B. (2013) · Biological Conservation · doi:10.1016/j.biocon.2013.09.003 · Cited by 117
Living on the edge: benefit-sharing from protected area tourism
Snyman, S., & Bricker, K. S. (2019) · Journal of Sustainable Tourism · doi:10.1080/09669582.2019.1615496 · Cited by 119
“Regardless of the debate as to whether increased population growth around PAs, due to the creation of employment from PA tourism, or due to the ecosystem services provided (Igoe et al., 2008; Wittemeyer et al., 2008), poverty levels around PAs are often some of the highest in the world.”
BackgroundThe landscape of anthropogenic mortality: how African lions respond to spatial variation in risk
Loveridge, A. J., Valeix, M., Elliot, N. B., & Macdonald, D. W. (2016) · Journal of Applied Ecology · doi:10.1111/1365-2664.12794 · Cited by 112
“Introduction Worldwide, human populations are increasing at the edges of protected areas (Wittemyer et al. 2008).”
BackgroundSpatiotemporal trends of illegal activities from ranger-collected data in a Ugandan national park
Critchlow, R., Plumptre, A. J., Driciru, M., Rwetsiba, A., Stokes, E. J., Tumwesigye, C., Wanyama, F., & Beale, C. M. (2015) · Conservation Biology · doi:10.1111/cobi.12538 · Cited by 121
Meter, P. E. V., French, J. A., Dloniak, S. M., Watts, H. E., Kolowski, J. M., & Holekamp, K. E. (2008) · Hormones and Behavior · doi:10.1016/j.yhbeh.2008.11.001 · Cited by 112
Rescia, A. J., Willaarts, B., Schmitz, M. F., & Aguilera, P. A. (2010) · Landscape and Urban Planning · doi:10.1016/j.landurbplan.2010.07.007 · Cited by 107
Identification of human–carnivore conflict hotspots to prioritize mitigation efforts
Broekhuis, F., Cushman, S. A., & Elliot, N. B. (2017) · Ecology and Evolution · doi:10.1002/ece3.3565 · Cited by 110
Patterns and Perceptions of Climate Change in a Biodiversity Conservation Hotspot
Hartter, J., Stampone, M. D., Ryan, S. J., Kirner, K., Chapman, C. A., & Goldman, A. C. (2012) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0032408 · Cited by 106
Sepúlveda, M. A., Singer, R. S., Silva‐Rodríguez, E. A., Stowhas, P., & Pelican, K. M. (2014) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0086152 · Cited by 104
Conservation in Sustainable-Use Tropical Forest Reserves
Peres, C. A. (2011) · Conservation Biology · doi:10.1111/j.1523-1739.2011.01770.x · Cited by 103
“The increasing isolation of protected areas (DeFries et al. 2005) and burgeoning Conservation Biology Volume 25, No. 6, 2011 human populations in surrounding areas (Wittemyer et al. 2008) militate against the long-term persistence of many species within reserve boundaries.”
BackgroundArnaiz‐Schmitz, C., Schmitz, M. F., Herrero‐Jáuregui, C., Angonese, J. G., Pineda, F. D., & Montes, C. (2017) · The Science of The Total Environment · doi:10.1016/j.scitotenv.2017.08.215 · Cited by 104
Residential Development Encroachment on U.S. Protected Areas
Wade, A. A., & Theobald, D. M. (2009) · Conservation Biology · doi:10.1111/j.1523-1739.2009.01296.x · Cited by 103
“Expansion of residential development is a key driver of species endangerment (Wilcove et al. 1998) and is a primary threat to protected-area resources (GAO 1994; Wittemyer et al. 2008).”
BackgroundLack of conservation effort rapidly increases African great ape extinction risk
Tranquilli, S., Abedi‐Lartey, M., Amsini, F., Arranz, L., Asamoah, A., Babafemi, O., Barakabuye, N., Campbell, G., Chancellor, R. L., Davenport, T. R. B., et al. (2011) · Conservation Letters · doi:10.1111/j.1755-263x.2011.00211.x · Cited by 100
“…human population density and accelerated population growth at the borders of these areas, accompanied by the increasing incidence of poaching and other illegal activities, are causing declines in wildlife populations (Oates 1999; Brashares et al. 2001; Walsh et al. 2003; Wittemyer et al. 2008).”
BackgroundNow there is no land: a story of ethnic migration in a protected area landscape in western Uganda
Hartter, J., Ryan, S. J., MacKenzie, C. A., Goldman, A., Dowhaniuk, N., Palace, M., Diem, J. E., & Chapman, C. A. (2014) · Population and Environment · doi:10.1007/s11111-014-0227-y · Cited by 101
“The KNP case supports the thesis that protected areas are an attractor to migrants, and therefore, population growth tends to be higher than other areas without protected areas (Wittemyer et al. 2008).”
BackgroundResultInfluentialForest degradation deepens around and within protected areas in East Asia
Tang, L., Shao, G., Piao, Z., Dai, L., Jenkins, M. A., Wang, S., Wu, G., Wu, J., & Zhao, J. (2010) · Biological Conservation · doi:10.1016/j.biocon.2010.01.024 · Cited by 101
“Contents lists available at ScienceDirect Biological Conservation journal homepage: www.elsevier .com/ locate /biocon Short communication Forest degradation deepens around and within protected areas in East Asia Lina Tang a, Guofan Shao b,*, Zhengji Piao c, Limin Dai d, Michael A. Jenkins b, Shaoxian Wang c, Gang Wu e…”
BackgroundHuman footprint and protected areas shape elephant range across Africa
Wall, J., Wittemyer, G., Klinkenberg, B., LeMay, V., Blake, S., Strindberg, S., Henley, M. D., Vollrath, F. W., Maisels, F. G., Ferwerda, J. G., et al. (2021) · Current Biology · doi:10.1016/j.cub.2021.03.042 · Cited by 110
Self-citationMonitoring land use and cover around parks: A conceptual approach
Jones, D. A., Hansen, A. J., Bly, K., Doherty, K. E., Verschuyl, J. P., Paugh, J. I., Carle, R., & Story, S. J. (2009) · Remote Sensing of Environment · doi:10.1016/j.rse.2008.08.018 · Cited by 97
“Change in LULC surrounding protected areas, and the resulting threats to resources within the borders of these areas, is a global phenomenon ( Wittemyer et al., 2008 ).”
BackgroundDivergent responses of sympatric species to livestock encroachment at fine spatiotemporal scales
Zhang, J., Hull, V., Ouyang, Z., Li, R., Connor, T., Yang, H., Zhang, Z., Silet, B., Zhang, H., & Liu, J. (2017) · Biological Conservation · doi:10.1016/j.biocon.2017.02.014 · Cited by 94
Sepúlveda, M. A., Pelican, K., Cross, P. C., Eguren, A., & Singer, R. S. (2015) · Mammalian Biology · doi:10.1016/j.mambio.2015.03.001 · Cited by 95
Delineating the Ecosystems Containing Protected Areas for Monitoring and Management
Hansen, A. J., Davis, C. R., Piekielek, N. B., Gross, J., Theobald, D. M., Goetz, S. J., Melton, F., & DeFries, R. (2011) · BioScience · doi:10.1525/bio.2011.61.5.5 · Cited by 95
Intraspecific Variation in the Behavioral Ecology of a Tropical Carnivore, the Spotted Hyena
Holekamp, K. E., & Dloniak, S. M. (2010) · Advances in the study of behavior · doi:10.1016/s0065-3454(10)42006-9 · Cited by 95
Considering the needs of indigenous and local populations in conservation programs
Kohler, F., & Brondízio, E. S. (2017) · Conservation Biology · doi:10.1111/cobi.12843 · Cited by 68
“Although results of such protected areas are mixed and largely dependent on local context, these conservation areas and reserves have been relatively effective in buffering at least some types of external pressures (Wittemyer et al. 2008; Andrade & Rhodes 2012; Pfaff et al. 2015).”
BackgroundBURDETT, C. L., CROOKS, K. R., THEOBALD, D. M., WILSON, K. R., BOYDSTON, E. E., LYREN, L. M., FISHER, R. N., VICKERS, T. W., MORRISON, S. A., & BOYCE, W. M. (2010) · Ecosphere · doi:10.1890/es10-00005.1 · Cited by 89
Emerging issues and challenges in conservation of biodiversity in the rangelands of Tanzania
Rija, A. A., Kideghesho, J. R., Mwamende, K. A., & Selemani, I. S. (2013) · Nature Conservation · doi:10.3897/natureconservation.6.5407 · Cited by 91
“Food insecurity and income poverty resulting from this scenario may lead to conversion of more wildlife habitats into croplands as well as killing of wild animals for protein (Hackel 1999, Loibooki et al. 2002, Kideghesho et al. 2005, Wittemyer et al. 2008).”
BackgroundInfluentialDewi, S., van Noordwijk, M., Ekadinata, A., & Pfund, J.-L. (2012) · Land Use Policy · doi:10.1016/j.landusepol.2012.02.006 · Cited by 89
Conserving large populations of lions – the argument for fences has holes
Creel, S., Becker, M. S., Durant, S. M., M’soka, J., Matandiko, W., Dickman, A., Christianson, D., Dröge, E., Mweetwa, T., Pettorelli, N., et al. (2013) · Ecology Letters · doi:10.1111/ele.12145 · Cited by 91
Self-citation
Metadata
- Authors
- Wittemyer, G., Elsen, P., Bean, W. T., Burton, A. C. O., & Brashares, J. S.
- Affiliations
- University of California, Berkeley (US)
- Department of Environmental Science, Policy, and Management, University of California at Berkeley, Berkeley, CA 94720, USA.
- Corresponding author
- Wittemyer, George
- Brashares, Justin S.
- Venue
- Science
- Published
- 2008-07-04
- Volume
- 321
- Issue
- 5885
- Pages
- 123-126
- ISSN
- 0036-8075 (ISSN-L)
- 1095-9203
- OpenAlex
- W2093559267
- Cited by
- 731
- References
- 20
- Citations by year
- 2026: 32 · 2025: 19 · 2024: 35 · 2023: 48 · 2022: 43 · 2021: 45 · 2020: 49 · 2019: 44 · 2018: 41 · 2017: 44 · 2016: 37 · 2015: 38 · 2014: 41 · 2013: 52 · 2012: 39
- FWCI
- 37.06
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- closed
- Locations
- Science (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- Topics
- Physical Sciences › Environmental Science › Global and Planetary Change › Conservation, Biodiversity, and Resource Management
- Physical Sciences › Environmental Science › Global and Planetary Change › Land Use and Ecosystem Services
- Physical Sciences › Environmental Science › Ecology › Wildlife Ecology and Conservation
- Keywords
- protected areas, population growth, rural settlement, conservation effectiveness, biodiversity conservation, donor funding, conservation funding, Africa, Latin America
- MeSH terms
- Conservation of Natural Resources, Financial Support, Humans, Infant, Infant Mortality, International Agencies, Latin America, Population Growth, Poverty, Rural Population, Ecosystem, Africa South of the Sahara, Biodiversity
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