Muscle and movement representations in the primary motor cortex
Abstract
What aspects of movement are represented in the primary motor cortex (M1): relatively low-level parameters like muscle force, or more abstract parameters like handpath? To examine this issue, the activity of neurons in M1 was recorded in a monkey trained to perform a task that dissociates three major variables of wrist movement: muscle activity, direction of movement at the wrist joint, and direction of movement in space. A substantial group of neurons in M1 (28 out of 88) displayed changes in activity that were muscle-like. Unexpectedly, an even larger group of neurons in M1 (44 out of 88) displayed changes in activity that were related to the direction of wrist movement in space independent of the pattern of muscle activity that generated the movement. Thus, both “muscles” and “movements” appear to be strongly represented in M1.
Integrity signals
Registry
Cites
Statistics
Claims the paper makes
Claims other papers make about this one
Each is checked against this paper’s own text: does it say what the citing paper says it does?
The output from DN can convey less than 5% of the information of the cortical output, assuming comparable discharge frequencies for corticofugal neurons and DNCs.
“Therefore, the output from DN can convey less than 5% of the information of the cortical output assuming comparable discharge frequencies for corticofugal neurons and DNCs (Kakei et al., 1999, 2001; Ishikawa et al., 2014; Tomatsu et al., 2016).”
From The Cerebro-Cerebellum as a Locus of Forward Model: A Review (2020) · cites this paper as Kakei et al., 1999
Cited by
Sorted by citations
Learning to control a brain–machine interface for reaching and grasping by primates
Carmena, J. M., Lebedev, M. A., Crist, R. E., O'Doherty, J. E., Santucci, D. M., Dimitrov, D. F., Patil, P. G., Henriquez, C. S., & Nicolelis, M. A. L. (2003) · PLoS Biology · doi:10.1371/journal.pbio.0000042 · Cited by 1,761 · see citing works
Cortical activity in the null space: permitting preparation without movement
Kaufman, M. T., Churchland, M. M., Ryu, S. I., & Shenoy, K. V. (2014) · Nature Neuroscience · doi:10.1038/nn.3643 · Cited by 831 · see citing works
Complex Movements Evoked by Microstimulation of Precentral Cortex
Graziano, M. S. A., Taylor, C. S. R., & Moore, T. (2002) · Neuron · doi:10.1016/s0896-6273(02)00698-0 · Cited by 921 · see citing works
Motor and cognitive functions of the ventral premotor cortex
Rizzolatti, G., Fogassi, L., & Gallese, V. (2002) · Current Opinion in Neurobiology · doi:10.1016/s0959-4388(02)00308-2 · Cited by 592 · see citing works
Direct cortical control of muscle activation in voluntary arm movements: a model
Todorov, E. (2000) · Nature Neuroscience · doi:10.1038/73964 · Cited by 439 · see citing works
Temporal Complexity and Heterogeneity of Single-Neuron Activity in Premotor and Motor Cortex
Churchland, M. M., & Shenoy, K. V. (2007) · Journal of Neurophysiology · doi:10.1152/jn.00095.2007 · Cited by 356 · see citing works
Restoring sensorimotor function through intracortical interfaces: progress and looming challenges
Bensmaia, S. J., & Miller, L. E. (2014) · Nature Reviews Neuroscience · doi:10.1038/nrn3724 · Cited by 368 · see citing works
Brain areas selective for both observed and executed movements
Dinstein, I., Hasson, U., Rubin, N., & Heeger, D. J. (2007) · Journal of Neurophysiology · doi:10.1152/jn.00238.2007 · Cited by 290 · see citing works
Somatic and motor components of action simulation
Avenanti, A., Bolognini, N., Maravita, A., & Aglioti, S. M. (2007) · Current Biology · doi:10.1016/j.cub.2007.11.045 · Cited by 244 · see citing works
Force field effects on cerebellar Purkinje cell discharge with implications for internal models
Pasalar, S., Roitman, A. V., Durfee, W. K., & Ebner, T. J. (2006) · Nature Neuroscience · doi:10.1038/nn1783 · Cited by 182 · see citing works
Lillicrap, T. P., & Scott, S. H. (2013) · Neuron · doi:10.1016/j.neuron.2012.10.041 · Cited by 157 · see citing works
Active Inference, Attention, and Motor Preparation
Brown, H., Friston, K., & Bestmann, S. (2011) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2011.00218 · Cited by 165 · see citing works
The Cerebro-Cerebellum as a Locus of Forward Model: A Review
Tanaka, H., Ishikawa, T., Lee, J., & Kakei, S. (2020) · Frontiers in Systems Neuroscience · doi:10.3389/fnsys.2020.00019 · Cited by 155 · see citing works
Self-citationSkill representation in the primary motor cortex after long-term practice
Matsuzaka, Y., Picard, N., & Strick, P. L. (2007) · Journal of Neurophysiology · doi:10.1152/jn.00784.2006 · Cited by 156 · see citing works
Longo, M. R., Kosobud, A., & Bertenthal, B. I. (2008) · Journal of Experimental Psychology: Human Perception and Performance · doi:10.1037/0096-1523.34.2.489 · Cited by 105 · see citing works
Governing coordination: behavioural principles and neural correlates
Carson, R. G., & Kelso, J. A. S. (2004) · Experimental Brain Research · doi:10.1007/s00221-003-1726-8 · Cited by 107 · see citing works
Cattaneo, L., Barchiesi, G., Tabarelli, D., Arfeller, C., Sato, M., & Glenberg, A. M. (2011) · Social Cognitive and Affective Neuroscience · doi:10.1093/scan/nsq099 · Cited by 99 · see citing works
Ishikawa, T., Tomatsu, S., Tsunoda, Y., Lee, J., Hoffman, D. S., & Kakei, S. (2014) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0108774 · Cited by 82 · see citing works
Self-citationModeling the Role of Sensory Feedback in Speech Motor Control and Learning
Parrell, B., & Houde, J. (2019) · Journal of Speech, Language, and Hearing Research · doi:10.1044/2019_jslhr-s-csmc7-18-0127 · Cited by 75 · see citing works
Neural evidence of the cerebellum as a state predictor
Tanaka, H., Ishikawa, T., & Kakei, S. (2019) · The Cerebellum · doi:10.1007/s12311-018-0996-4 · Cited by 75 · see citing works
Self-citationMotor cortical activity changes during neuroprosthetic-controlled object interaction
Downey, J. E., Brane, L., Gaunt, R. A., Tyler-Kabara, E. C., Boninger, M. L., & Collinger, J. L. (2017) · Scientific Reports · doi:10.1038/s41598-017-17222-3 · Cited by 63 · see citing works
Sensor requirements for activity recognition on smart watches
Bieber, G., Haescher, M., & Vahl, M. (2013) · Proceedings of the 6th International Conference on PErvasive Technologies Related to Assistive Environments · doi:10.1145/2504335.2504407 · Cited by 72 · see citing works
Behavioral decomposition reveals rich encoding structure employed across neocortex in rats
Mimica, B., Tombaz, T., Battistin, C., Fuglstad, J. G., Dunn, B. A., & Whitlock, J. R. (2023) · Nature Communications · doi:10.1038/s41467-023-39520-3 · Cited by 45 · see citing works
Neuronal Activity in Motor Cortical Areas Reflects the Sequential Context of Movement
Ben-Shaul, Y., Drori, R., Asher, I., Stark, E., Nadasdy, Z., & Abeles, M. (2004) · Journal of Neurophysiology · doi:10.1152/jn.00957.2003 · Cited by 45 · see citing works
Contribution of the cerebellum to predictive motor control and its evaluation in ataxic patients
Kakei, S., Lee, J., Mitoma, H., Tanaka, H., Manto, M., & Hampe, C. S. (2019) · Frontiers in Human Neuroscience · doi:10.3389/fnhum.2019.00216 · Cited by 34 · see citing works
Self-citationA dual larynx motor networks hypothesis
Belyk, M., Eichert, N., & McGettigan, C. (2021) · Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B · doi:10.1098/rstb.2020.0392 · Cited by 17 · see citing works
- Authors
- Kakei, S., Hoffman, D. S., & Strick, P. L.
- Affiliations
- United States Department of Veterans Affairs (US)
- Corresponding author
- Strick, Peter L.
- Venue
- Science
- Published
- 1999-09-24
- Volume
- 285
- Issue
- 5436
- Pages
- 2136-2139
- ISSN
- 0036-8075 (ISSN-L)
- 1095-9203
- OpenAlex
- W1997392514
- Cited by
- 796
- References
- 0
- Citations by year
- 2026: 18 · 2025: 55 · 2024: 19 · 2023: 20 · 2022: 16 · 2021: 17 · 2020: 41 · 2019: 32 · 2018: 35 · 2017: 32 · 2016: 25 · 2015: 47 · 2014: 31 · 2013: 35 · 2012: 32
- FWCI
- 9.99
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- closed
- Locations
- Science (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- Topics
- Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Cognitive Neuroscience › Motor Control and Adaptation
- Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Cognitive Neuroscience › Neural dynamics and brain function
- Physical Sciences › Engineering › Biomedical Engineering › Muscle activation and electromyography studies
- Keywords
- primary motor cortex, motor representations, muscle activity, wrist kinematics, movement direction, space representation, single-unit activity
- MeSH terms
- Animals, Haplorhini, Arm, Biomechanical Phenomena, Carpus, Animal, Electromyography, Forearm, Motor Cortex, Movement, Muscle Contraction, Neurons, Posture, Shoulder, Wrist, Wrist Joint, Muscle, Skeletal
About these checks
Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.
Statistics and arithmetic are recomputed, not judged.
Confidence bands are shown only for fields calibrated on our annotated test set. None is calibrated yet, so no band is shown.
What counts as a claim ›How we measure confidence ›How we check this ›
Are you an author, or do you see a problem with this page? Request a review
