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Occurrence of mental health symptoms and disorders in current and former elite athletes: a systematic review and meta-analysis
Open accessAbstract
Objectives: To present an overview of the existing epidemiological evidence regarding the occurrence of mental health symptoms and disorders among current and former elite athletes. Design: Systematic review and meta-analysis. Data sources: Five electronic databases were searched from inception to November 2018: PubMed (MEDLINE), SportDiscus via EBSCO, PSycINFO via ProQuest, Scopus and Cochrane. Eligibility criteria for selecting studies: We included original quantitative studies that were written in English, were conducted exclusively among current or former elite athletes, and presented incidence or prevalence rates of symptoms of mental disorders. Results: Twenty-two relevant original studies about mental health symptoms and disorders among current elite athletes were included: they presented data especially on symptoms of distress, sleep disturbance, anxiety/depression and alcohol misuse. Meta-analyses comprising 2895 to 5555 current elite athletes showed that the prevalence of mental health symptoms and disorders ranged from 19% for alcohol misuse to 34% for anxiety/depression. Fifteen relevant original studies about mental health symptoms and disorders among former elite athletes were included: they similarly presented data especially about symptoms of distress, sleep disturbance, anxiety/depression and alcohol misuse. Meta-analyses comprising 1579 to 1686 former elite athletes showed that the prevalence of mental health symptoms and disorders ranged from 16% for distress to 26% for anxiety/depression. Conclusions: Our meta-analyses showed that the prevalence of mental health symptoms and disorders ranged from 19% for alcohol misuse to 34% for anxiety/depression for current elite athletes, and from 16% for distress to 26% for anxiety/depression for former elite athletes.
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“To date, research has primarily examined the mental health outcomes of elite athletes [15–18], with comparatively less research focusing on understanding these psychological experiences among coaches [19].”
From The Mental Health of Elite-Level Coaches: A Systematic Scoping Review (2024) · cites this paper as [15]
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Self-citationSport Management Faculty Members’ Mentorship of Student-Athletes
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Self-citationAn examination of how voluntary international netball officials view and experience well-being
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“A recent meta-analysis, representing a range of sports and nationalities, revealed a 34% prevalence of anxious and depressive symptoms and significant distress in 20% of current and former elite athletes (Gouttebarge et al., 2019).”
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InfluentialSelf-citationWaleriańczyk, W., Krzywański, J., Wójcik, K., Lisek, G., Konopka, K., Krysztofiak, H., Maleszka, P., Sławińska, M., & Poczwardowski, A. (2025) · Journal of Human Kinetics · doi:10.5114/jhk/204828 · Cited by 6
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“Further challenges include performance and competition pressure, financial issues, a lack of social support [6], and the potential for involuntary retirement due to injuries [7].”
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Oftadeh-Moghadam, S., & Gorczynski, P. F. (2022) · Journal of Clinical Sport Psychology · doi:10.1123/jcsp.2021-0027 · Cited by 5
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Stable or Fluid? An Investigation Into Female Student Athlete Basketball Players’ Well-Being
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Skating on thin ice? Mental health and well-being in women’s ice hockey
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Saúde e transtorno mental no atleta de alto rendimento
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Global Representation in Mental Health and Elite Sport and Parasport Research
Gorczynski, P. F., Aron, C. M., Baron, D. A., Moore, M. A., & Reardon, C. L. (2025) · Advances in Psychiatry and Behavioral Health · doi:10.1016/j.ypsc.2025.02.009 · Cited by 3
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Patterns of reasons for retirement in Olympic athletes from Switzerland: a person-oriented study
Schmid, M. J., Crom, L. D., Conzelmann, A., & Schmid, J. (2025) · International Journal of Sport and Exercise Psychology · doi:10.1080/1612197x.2025.2510248 · Cited by 3
“Even years after retirement, athletes who were forced to end their careers due to injury often suffer from impaired physical and mental health (Carmody et al., 2022; Filbay et al., 2019; Furie et al., 2023; Gouttebarge et al., 2019; Koch et al., 2021).”
Golub, N., & Steinfeldt, J. A. (2025) · Frontiers in Sports and Active Living · doi:10.3389/fspor.2025.1583467 · Cited by 3
Palmer, D., Soligard, T., Fernandes, G., Collins, D. J., Elliott, N., Kelly, P., Murray, I. R., & Engebretsen, L. (2025) · BMJ Open Sport & Exercise Medicine · doi:10.1136/bmjsem-2025-002545 · Cited by 3
Ekelund, R., Holmström, S., & Stenling, A. (2025) · International Journal of Sport and Exercise Psychology · doi:10.1080/1612197x.2025.2563323 · Cited by 5
Lyon-Monk, O., Arnold, R., Williams, S., Cleave, L. J., Cumming, S., Currie, A., Wass, J., & Moore, L. J. (2025) · Journal of science and medicine in sport · doi:10.1016/j.jsams.2025.10.002 · Cited by 5
Kalpana, K., Saifi, A., Khanna, G. L., Rao, D. B., Rakhra, G., & Tanwar, E. (2025) · Discover Mental Health · doi:10.1007/s44192-025-00224-3 · Cited by 3
“The athletic population is particularly vulnerable to mental health disorders such as anxiety, depression, posttraumatic stress, sleep and eating disorders due to the intense pressures of training and competition [4].”
Liu, Y., Huang, Z., Xu, Y., & Wang, J. W. (2026) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1776657 · Cited by 3
“A meta-analysis across 22 studies reported a pooled prevalence of mental health disorder of 34.0% among athletes (Gouttebarge et al., 2019).”
InfluentialKegelaers, J. J., Wylleman, P., Brevers, D., Pankow, K., & Kenttä, G. (2026) · Psychology of sport and exercise · doi:10.1016/j.psychsport.2026.103146 · Cited by 4
Goderecci, R., Dominicis, S. D., Necozione, S., Ciriello, V., Angelozzi, M., Calvisi, V., & Logroscino, G. (2022) · Acta bio-medica dell'Ateneo parmense/Acta biomedica · doi:10.23750/abm.v93i3.12562 · Cited by 3
Mental Health in First- and Second-Division Soccer Players: A Cross-Sectional Study
Bonet, L., Benito, A., Usó, H., Peraire, M., Haro, G., & Almodóvar-Fernández, I. (2024) · Sports · doi:10.3390/sports12040106 · Cited by 4
“It has adequate reliability and validity, takes less time than other diagnostic interviews [14] and has been used in athletes [27,28].”
BackgroundInfluentialPerceptions of athletes with mental health conditions and sponsor responses: a consumer perspective
Kwak, D. H., & Jang, N. (2024) · Sport Management Review · doi:10.1080/14413523.2024.2360253 · Cited by 3
“Thirdly, the present study centered on anxiety and depression, which are the most frequently reported issues among current and former athletes (Gouttebarge et al., 2019).”
InfluentialGrebner, K., Michel‐Kröhler, A., Werner, T., Berti, S., & Wessa, M. (2024) · Scientific Reports · doi:10.1038/s41598-024-74908-1 · Cited by 8
“injuries, performance setbacks, end of career) that might increase their vulnerability for athletic burnout and psychological impairments 8 .”
BackgroundAnsiedade e Perturbação de Ansiedade Generalizada em Atletas de Elite
Pires, L., Gomes, S., & Freitas, P. (2024) · Acta Médica Portuguesa · doi:10.20344/amp.21600 · Cited by 4
Non-modifiable and modifiable factors affecting anxiety and depressive symptoms in young athletes
Vieira, M. M., Neves, L. M., Felisberto, P., Fernandes, R. A., Xavier, R. L. D. S., Rossi, P. A. Q., Juday, V., Deslandes, A. C., Lastella, M., & Rossi, F. E. (2025) · The Physician and Sportsmedicine · doi:10.1080/00913847.2025.2466415 · Cited by 3
“Anxiety symptoms are prevalent in roughly 23% of Olympic athletes, while both anxiety and depressive symptoms affect approximately 35% of the top athletes [3].”
Síntomas psicopatológicos en árbitras de fútbol: un estudio piloto
Durán-Andrada, J., Khudhair, M. A., & Arbinaga, F. (2025) · Revista de Psicología Aplicada al Deporte y el Ejercicio Físico · doi:10.5093/rpadef2025a5 · Cited by 3
Gil-Caselles, L., Barquín, R. R., Giménez‐Egido, J. M., García-Naveira, A., & Zafra, A. O. (2025) · Healthcare · doi:10.3390/healthcare13141657 · Cited by 4
Perfectionism and depression in sport. Are we as clear as in clinical practice? A systematic review
Hernández, J. G., Sarries, S., Raimundi, M. J., Flett, G. L., & Hewitt, P. L. (2025) · Current Psychology · doi:10.1007/s12144-025-08134-x · Cited by 5
“Gouttebarge et al. (2019) performed two meta-analyses to study mental health disorders among elite and former athletes.”
InfluentialMental Well-Being and Risk of Depression in Amateur Soccer Players
Zepp, C., Belz, J., & Kleinert, J. (2021) · Zeitschrift für Sportpsychologie · doi:10.1026/1612-5010/a000333 · Cited by 3
Mental illness in elite weightlifters
Pitt, A., McCabe, T., Lambert, J. D., & Arnold, R. (2022) · Sports Psychiatry · doi:10.1024/2674-0052/a000021 · Cited by 3
Professional Athletes’ Well-Being: New Challenges in Post-COVID-19 Times
Assa, R., & Reizer, A. (2023) · Behavioral Sciences · doi:10.3390/bs13100831 · Cited by 3
“Up until now, the majority of mental health research within the realm of elite athletes has been primarily focused on male athletes at the professional level [17,74].”
BackgroundPhysical Activity and Engagement Coping: A Key for Stress-Recovery in Mexican University Students
Barradas, E. Y. F., Marván, M. L., Llanderal, T. C., Reynoso-Sánchez, F., & Meza, S. H. (2024) · Journal of Clinical Sport Psychology · doi:10.1123/jcsp.2022-0070 · Cited by 3
“…nding could be related to two conditions, the fi rst one is the amount of physical activity of university students not being part of the HPUA group, and second, both groups perceived stress levels (Gouttebarge et al., 2019; Rice et al., 2019), generating a similar level of stress to the RPAUS group.”
Kalogeratos, G., Anastasopoulou, E. E., Tseremegklis, C., & Avramidi, E. (2024) · Technium Education and Humanities · doi:10.47577/teh.v8i.10711 · Cited by 3
“Extensive research has been conducted on the occurrence of mental disorders in various populations, including elite athletes, adolescents, and postpartum women (Gouttebarge et al., 2019; Meltzer‐Brody et al., 2018; Kessler et al., 1996).”
BackgroundRemote work arrangement: a blessing in disguise for socially anxious individuals
Khan, K., e-Habiba, U., Aziz, S., Sabeen, Z., Zeeshan, A., Naz, Z., & Waseem, M. (2024) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2023.1152499 · Cited by 9
Ruffault, A., Valverde, S., Régnauld, C., Podlog, L. W., & Hamonnière, T. (2024) · Psychology of sport and exercise · doi:10.1016/j.psychsport.2024.102727 · Cited by 3
The paradox of mental health versus mental disease in elite athletes: a scoping review
Colagrai, A. C., Barreira, J., Nascimento, F. T., & Fernandes, P. T. (2022) · Motriz Revista de Educação Física · doi:10.1590/s1980-6574202200001722 · Cited by 6
“…seeking help 14 , stigma 15 , mental health services 16 , common mental disorders (depression, anxiety, sleep disorder, and alcohol use, together) 2 , anxiety 7 , depression 5,17-19 , suicide 20 , eating disorders 21 , sleep disorders 22 , bipolar and psychotic disorder 23 , as well as consensus…”
Engage, Enthuse, Empower: A Framework for Promoting Self-Sufficiency in Athletes
Maloney, S. J. (2022) · Strength and conditioning journal · doi:10.1519/ssc.0000000000000754 · Cited by 2
“In a recent meta-analysis, pooled estimates noted anxiety and depressive symptoms in 34% of current and 26% of former elite athletes (29).”
BackgroundColangelo, J., Smith, A. J., Keay, N., Buadze, A., & Liebrenz, M. (2024) · Frontiers in Sports and Active Living · doi:10.3389/fspor.2024.1480574 · Cited by 2
Personal Crisis in Athletes: Injuries and Retirement
Ivarsson, A., & Gledhill, A. (2024) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-3-031-69328-1_11 · Cited by 3
Purcell, R., & Currie, A. (2024) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-3-031-69328-1_12 · Cited by 2
Griffin, S. A., Sheriff, R. S., Dane, K., Myall, K., Simpson, K., Lewis, H., Yeomans, C., Patricios, J., Kemp, S. P. T., Khan, K., et al. (2024) · BMJ Open Sport & Exercise Medicine · doi:10.1136/bmjsem-2024-002164 · Cited by 2
“This somewhat limits the applicability of the results to these rugby-playing cohorts.”
Metadata
- Authors
- Gouttebarge, V., Castaldelli-Maia, J. M., Gorczynski, P., Hainline, B., Hitchcock, M. E., Kerkhoffs, G. M., Rice, S. M., & Reardon, C. L.
- Affiliations
- Amsterdam University Medical Centers (NL)
- University of Portsmouth (GB)
- National Collegiate Athletic Association (US)
- University of Wisconsin–Madison (US)
- Amsterdam UMC Location University of Amsterdam (NL)
- The University of Melbourne (AU)
- University of Wisconsin System (US)
- Corresponding author
- Gouttebarge, Vincent
- ORCID
- Venue
- British Journal of Sports Medicine
- Publisher
- BMJ
- Published
- 2019-05-16
- Volume
- 53
- Issue
- 11
- Pages
- 700-706
- ISSN
- 0306-3674 (ISSN-L)
- 1473-0480
- PMC
- PMC6579497
- OpenAlex
- W2944177380
- Cited by
- 604
- References
- 68
- Citations by year
- 2026: 119 · 2025: 107 · 2024: 111 · 2023: 77 · 2022: 80 · 2021: 58 · 2020: 44 · 2019: 7
- FWCI
- 10.09
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- hybrid
- doi.org
- Licence
- cc-by
- Locations
- British Journal of Sports Medicine (publishedVersion, cc-by)
- Europe PMC (PubMed Central) (publishedVersion, cc-by-nc)
- PubMed Central (publishedVersion, cc-by-nc)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- Pure Amsterdam UMC (publishedVersion, cc-by)
- Amsterdam UMC (VU Amsterdam) - Institutional Repository (publishedVersion, other-oa)
- Minerva Access (University of Melbourne) (submittedVersion, cc-by-nc)
- Data Archiving and Networked Services (DANS) (submittedVersion, other-oa)
- HighWire Press Open Archive (submittedVersion)
- Data Archiving and Networked Services (DANS) (submittedVersion, cc-by-nc)
- Funders
- International Olympic Committee
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Developmental and Educational Psychology › Sport Psychology and Performance
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Clinical Psychology › Psychological Treatments and Assessments
- Health Sciences › Medicine › Psychiatry and Mental health › Mental Health Treatment and Access
- Keywords
- mental health, elite athletes, former athletes, anxiety, depression, alcohol abuse, sleep disorders, psychological distress, prevalence, mental illness
- MeSH terms
- Anxiety, Mental Disorders, Depression, Humans, Sleep Wake Disorders, Incidence, Prevalence, Alcohol-Related Disorders, Athletes
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