Falling for Fake News: Investigating the Consumption of News via Social Media

46% of survey respondents highlighted 'new information' referring to a current event as an important factor in determining whether a social media post was news.

“In addition, 46% of respondents highlighted 'new information' referring to a current event as an important factor, while 20% referred to news being 'factual', 'accurate' or 'something of interest'.”

In the survey, 65% of respondents reported accessing news via their Facebook feeds at least once a day.

“Notably 65% of respondents reported accessing news via their Facebook feeds (i.e.shared by friends, subscriptions to news agencies, suggested automatically by Facebook) at least once a day; however only 20% obtained 'most' of their news via Facebook.”

• Also stated in: § Abstract · plain

  “A survey reveals that two thirds of respondents regularly consumed news via Facebook, and that one third had at some point come across fake news that they initially believed to be true.”

In the survey, 46% of respondents had come across a news item they immediately identified as fake.

“Conversely, 46% had come across a news item they immediately identified as fake, principally based on knowledge of the source as satire -'The Onion', 'Daily Mash', or being known to exaggerate -'because it was the Daily Mail', or again through their own reasoning and judgements of plausibility.”

Survey respondents who immediately identified fake news did so principally based on knowledge of the source as satire or known to exaggerate, or through their own reasoning and judgements of plausibility.

“Conversely, 46% had come across a news item they immediately identified as fake, principally based on knowledge of the source as satire -'The Onion', 'Daily Mash', or being known to exaggerate -'because it was the Daily Mail', or again through their own reasoning and judgements of plausibility.”

Survey respondents identified fake news they initially believed predominantly by fact-checking against other sources or using their own reasoning that something could not be true or seemed implausible.

“Here respondents stated that they identified the piece of news in question as fake predominantly by fact-checking against other sources, or using their own reasoning that something either could not be true or seemed implausible.”

In the survey, only 20% of respondents obtained most of their news via Facebook.

“Notably 65% of respondents reported accessing news via their Facebook feeds (i.e.shared by friends, subscriptions to news agencies, suggested automatically by Facebook) at least once a day; however only 20% obtained 'most' of their news via Facebook.”

Survey respondents referred to information coming from a source they considered reputable as a factor in determining whether a social media post was news.

“When asked to describe factors that were used to determine whether a post, article or link seen on social media was news or not, respondents referred to information coming from a source that they considered to be 'reputable', many including the BBC, and others referencing 'mainstream TV news channels or broadsheet newspapers' including The Guardian, Reuters and CNN.”

In the survey, 37% of respondents had come across a news story, believed it to be true, then later realized that it was either exaggerated, inaccurate or blatantly false.

“37% of respondents had come across a news story, believed it to be true, then later realized that it was either exaggerated, inaccurate or blatantly false.”

• Also stated in: § Abstract · plain

  “A survey reveals that two thirds of respondents regularly consumed news via Facebook, and that one third had at some point come across fake news that they initially believed to be true.”

Participants' concerns about such a tool were determined by whether they saw it using crowdsourced verification of news or authoritative or algorithmic flagging of fake news.

“Their concerns about such a tool were determined by whether they saw it using crowdbased verification of news or whether it was authoritative or algorithmic flagging of fake news.”

Some participants fully relied on the authority of the source to make judgments on whether a story is true.

“First, some instances showed participants to fully rely on the authority of the source to make judgments on whether the story is true.”

80% of survey respondents accessed online news sources.

“34% of respondents accessed news on the television at least once a day, with 80% accessing online news sources.”

When a story was deemed particularly incredible, that was sometimes enough to dismiss it without further verification.

“When the story was deemed particularly incredible, that was sometimes enough to simply dismiss it without the need for further verification.”

The apparent veracity of a news story was often a determining factor in whether or not a story was interesting to participants.

“The reverse was also true -the apparent veracity of a news story was often a determining factor in whether or not a story was interesting.”

To participants, a story was deemed truthful or not based entirely on its own merits.

“To our participants the story was deemed truthful or not based entirely on its own merits.”

Of survey respondents who read the article in full or in part, only 55% believed that the headline accurately matched the content.

“Of those who did read the article either in full or in part, only 55% believed that the headline accurately matched the content.”

Some participants formulated their belief based on their own personal assessment of believability, then later utilized the source to support this belief.

“In other words, they formulated their belief based on their own personal assessment of the believability of the news story, and then later utilized the source to support this belief.”

For some participants, whether a source was a reputable newspaper or an openly satirical website did little to alter their own assessment of a news story's validity.

“In these instances, the fact that a source was a reputable newspaper or an openly satirical website did little to alter their own assessment of the validity of a news story, often made based on its believability to the participant and given their own predispositions.”

The level of interest in a story, solely from its Facebook post, was a strong indicator of how likely a participant was to make a judgement as to its veracity.

“Thus the level of interest in a story, solely from its Facebook post, was a strong indicator of how likely a participant was to make a judgement as to its veracity.”

When asked to describe what they understood 'fake news' to mean, participants' responses varied, with some defining the term based only on the truthfulness of the story.

“When asked to describe in their own words what they understood”

In some instances, conclusions are drawn purely from the information presented in the Facebook feed, and a judgement is immediately made solely on headline, indicated source and image.

“In some instances, conclusions are drawn purely from the information presented in the Facebook feed, and a judgement immediately made solely on headline, indicated source and image”

To some participants, it was doubtful whether they trusted anyone enough to delegate the responsibility of flagging fake news.

“To others it was doubtful whether they trusted anyone enough to delegate that responsibility to.”

Participants who saw such a tool as an authoritative filter had stronger feelings towards it.

“Participants who saw such as a tool as being an authoritative filter had stronger feelings towards it.”

To several participants, fake news seemed a cause for various degrees of concern.

“To several of these participants, fake news seemed a cause for various degrees of concern.”

The thematic analysis of the think-aloud data identified a variety of individual sense-making and argumentative strategies employed by participants.

“The thematic analysis of the qualitative data collected from the think aloud study lead to the identification of a variety of individual sense-making and argumentative strategies employed by the participants.”

Some participants paid less attention to the apparent source and instead focused on the content of the story itself, making no mention of source in their assessment.

“Some of our participants appeared to pay less attention to the apparent source of the news stories they were reading as appearing on each Facebook post, and instead focused on the content of the story itself, making no mention of source in their assessment.”

Funny or humorous content was likely to leave participants doubting the truth of a story.

“Naturally, funny or humorous content was likely to leave participants doubting the truth of a story.”

Stories shared by respected friends were more likely to be trusted as being true.

“It is further emphasized that stories shared by respected friends were not only more likely to be interesting, but also more likely to be trusted as being true.”

Acknowledgement of the source sometimes made participants question their original assessment, resulting in qualifying or completely changing it.

“This sometimes went the other way, and acknowledgement of the source made them question their original assessment, resulting in qualifying the original belief or completely changing it.”

In addition to believability of content, the style of reporting and information about the author and date of an article were sometimes relied on by participants.

“Finally, in addition to the believability of the content, the style of reporting as well as information about the author and date of an article were sometimes relied on.”

20% of survey respondents referred to news being 'factual', 'accurate' or 'something of interest' as a factor in determining whether a social media post was news.

“In addition, 46% of respondents highlighted 'new information' referring to a current event as an important factor, while 20% referred to news being 'factual', 'accurate' or 'something of interest'.”

Only one positive response came from a participant about such a tool.

“Only one positive response came from a participant who said,”

The incidental delivery of news through social media was believed by participants to have had an effect on the behaviour of a number of participants, including being aware of not thinking about the truthfulness of a story.

“The incidental delivery of news through social media was believed to have had an effect on the behaviour of a number of our participants, including being aware of not thinking about the truthfulness of a story.”

Informal writing style was seen as a mark of fictitious news, regardless of the source.

“In addition, informal writing style was seen as a mark of fictitious news, regardless of the source.”

Participants described their belief in terms of the credibility of the article itself, supporting it with their own prior knowledge.

“They simply described their belief in terms of the credibility of the article itself by supporting it with, for instance, their own prior knowledge.”

34% of survey respondents accessed news on television at least once a day.

“34% of respondents accessed news on the television at least once a day, with 80% accessing online news sources.”

Participants highlighted the value they see in reading news stories shared by those they respect.

“A further element of the source probed in the subsequent interview was the person that might have posted or shared a particular story, and participants indeed highlighted the value they see in reading news stories shared by those they respect.”

Participants did not always separate humour from truth.

“Participants however did not always separate humour from truth.”

Participants did not suggest they believed there was an absolute link between the truth and believability of an article.

“Our participants did not suggest that they believed there was an absolute link between the truth and believability of an article.”

Only 61% of survey respondents went through to read the full story of a news item encountered through social media.

“However, only 61% of respondents went through to read the full story, with the remainder commenting that they did not have the time or interest to devote to it, or notably that sufficient information was given in the headline presented in the social media feed.”

Some participants expressed belief in an article before acknowledging or looking at the source, then later looked at and vocalized the source to justify their assessment.

“In a second set of instances, participants expressed their belief in the article before acknowledging or looking at the source, but later looked at and vocalized the source to justify their assessment.”

Participants showed distinct approaches to determining whether to believe a news story, varying primarily in the attention they gave to the source.

“When determining whether to believe a news story, participants showed distinct approaches which varied primarily in one aspect: the attention they gave to the source of the story.”

Participants were in general dubious about the utility of a tool to help determine whether news being read was fake or real.

“Participants were in general dubious about the utility of such a tool.”

Several participants found it difficult to engage with stories that mattered little to them despite repeated prompting.

“Several participants found it difficult to engage with stories that mattered little to them despite repeated prompting.”

When the topic of a news story was not seen as personally relevant, participants had little interest in figuring out whether it was true.

“When the topic of the story was not seen as personally relevant, there was little interest in figuring out whether or not it was true.”

In other instances, a judgement is made having clicked the article but before making any attempt to analyse the content or source in detail.

“In others, a judgement is made having clicked the article but before making any attempt to analyse the content or source in detail.”

When a news story seemed of little significance to a participant, whether it was true or not became irrelevant.

“Firstly, when a story seemed of little significance to the user, whether it was true or not became irrelevant.”

When asked to reflect on their ability to detect fake news, participants showed an overall weak level of confidence.

“When asked to reflect on their ability to detect fake news, the result was an overall weak level of confidence.”

A think aloud study has revealed various interpretative and argumentative strategies used by readers when asked to make judgements on the truthfulness of news presented in a social media feed.

“A think aloud study has subsequently revealed various interpretative and argumentative strategies used by readers when asked to make judgements on the truthfulness of news presented in a social media feed.”

Where participants had little or no interest in the topic at hand, they would not even entertain the story.

“Where participants had little or no interest in the topic at hand, they would not even entertain the story.”

Another sense-making strategy revealed by the data is incrementally drawing upon and looking for signs of reliability in source and content.

“Secondly, but conversely, another sense-making strategy also revealed by our data is incrementally drawing upon and looking for signs of reliability in source and content.”

Participants draw upon a variety of formal and judgement based characteristics when assessing news via social media.

“including drawing upon a variety of formal and judgement based characteristics”

In other cases, such hierarchies appear to have lost their former traction almost altogether.

“In other cases, such hierarchies appear to have lost their former traction almost altogether.”

There was a distinct lack of trust among participants in any proposed introduction of institutional fact checking of news when presented via social media.

“Here also was a distinct lack of trust in any proposed introduction of institutional fact checking of news when presented via social media.”

Some participants clearly still uphold hierarchical distinctions between less and more trustworthy sources of news, at times granting them the final authority in deciding on the perceived reliability of a news item.

“Some of our participants clearly still uphold hierarchical distinctions between less and more trustworthy sources of news, at times granting them the final authority in deciding on the perceived reliability of a news item.”

An in-between position appears to see individuals reference such hierarchies strategically, i.e. if it serves their rhetorical purposes.

“And an in-between position appears to see individuals reference such hierarchies strategically: i.e. if it serves their rhetorical purposes.”

Participants took the reported source of the news articles, as presented in the Facebook news feed, at face value.

“Notably our participants took the reported source of the news articles, in this case as presented in the Facebook news feed, at face value.”

The findings highlight the difficulties in combating the spread of fake news.

“This reflects a shift away from traditional methods of accessing the news, and highlights the difficulties in combating the spread of fake news.”

Algorithmic content filtering can create echo chambers that trap users by only exposing them to opinions and beliefs they are already in agreement with.

“This is compounded by the rise of algorithmic content filtering, such as that populating Facebook users' feeds or seen in the news dissemination system 'WhatsUp' [6], that can create echo chambers which trap users by only exposing them to opinions and beliefs they are already in agreement with [19,23].”

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Teaching critical evaluation of news within the context of a person's own beliefs can enable them to recognize bias even when it supports their own beliefs.

“Teaching critical evaluation of news within the context of a person's own beliefs, and what they know or believe to be true, can enable them to recognize bias even when it supports their own beliefs [20].”

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Simply being aware of the possibility that a news article may not be authentic can increase new media literacy.

“In fact, simply being aware of the possibility that a news article may not be authentic can increase new media literacy [28].”

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The findings reflect a shift away from traditional methods of accessing the news.

“This reflects a shift away from traditional methods of accessing the news, and highlights the difficulties in combating the spread of fake news.”

The extent to which these factors are drawn upon is variable.

“The extent to which these factors are drawn upon is also variable.”

Respondents appear to draw on a number of different strategies in reasoning about the validity of news, including prior assumptions about source reputation, determinations of plausibility, headlines and sometimes the full text.

“Respondents appear to draw on a number of different strategies in reasoning about the validity of news, including prior assumptions about source reputation, determinations of plausibility, headlines and sometimes the full text.”

Participants' behaviour suggests that they assess news differently when it is presented via social media.

“Our participants' behaviour suggests that they assess news differently when it is presented via social media”

Providing users with answers about what is right and what is wrong has been shown to risk simply being ignored by users.

“We believe that a solution to this issue does not lie in providing users with answers about what's right and what's wrong, which has been shown to risk simply being ignored by users [32]”

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The study has highlighted a lack of viable solutions that may address fake news.

“Our study has highlighted a lack of viable solutions that may address this.”

The exercise required participants to go through the posts to find the fake news, so the nature of the activity meant that participants appeared to go through the posts at a slower pace than they may normally adopt when browsing their usual social media.

“The exercise required them to go through the posts to find the fake news, so the nature of the activity meant that participants appeared to go through the posts at a slower pace than they may normally adopt when browsing their usual social media.”

Participants' behaviour potentially challenges traditionally hierarchical information provision.

“potentially challenging traditionally hierarchical information provision”

The explicit nature of the task is inevitably a step removed from more naturalistic settings.

“however the explicit nature of the task is inevitably a step removed from more naturalistic settings.”

The data highlights sense-making strategies that point in two conflicting directions.

“Here again our data highlights sense-making strategies that point in two conflicting directions.”

Perceived levels of interest in topics is a key factor when considering solutions to echo chambers and fake news.

“and demonstrating that perceived levels of interest in topics is a key factor when considering solutions to echo chambers and fake news.”

• AssumptionRests on an assumption: Echo chambers exist and fake news can exacerbate their effects.

The innovative design of the methodology that asked participants to think aloud while examining a Facebook feed successfully elicited reflections on news consumption practices.

“The innovative design of our methodology that asked participants to think aloud while examining a Facebook feed successfully elicited reflections on news consumption practices”

The data raises issues about established but increasingly questioned hierarchies of perceived reliability and trustworthiness of publicly circulating information.

“Our data raises intriguing issues about what one may term established, but now increasingly questioned, hierarchies of perceived reliability and trustworthiness of publicly circulating information.”

By scrolling past articles that had little relevance to them, participants showed that even if they were confronted with news from outside their bubble, they were unlikely to engage with it.

“Indeed, by scrolling past articles that had little relevance to them, our participants showed that even if they were to be confronted with news from outside their bubble, they were unlikely to engage with it.”

• AssumptionRests on an assumption: Echo chambers exist and fake news can exacerbate their effects.

Debates around fake news in general, and the participants in particular, seem to be aware of and grappling with an ever-widening uncertainty as to what counts or can be presented as trustworthy information.

“Seen in this context, debates around fake news in general, and our participants in particular, seem to be aware of and grappling with an ever-widening uncertainty as to what counts or can be presented as trustworthy information.”