State Repression and Political Order

“Indeed, the use of some form of repressive action by the state as a response to challenges to the status quo is one of the “core findings” of the literature on state repression.(16) These analyses have not taken into account the effects of a previous civil war on the variation in state repression patterns.”

“An extensive literature has considered the relationship between repression and dissent, and in particular what explains state repression (see e.g. Davenport, 2007 for a summary of the literature; Poe, 2004).”

“It will use repressive means when it feels threatened by a social movement (Davenport, 2007; Pierskalla, 2010).”

“When opposition groups use violent tactics such as these, scholars have shown that the state’s optimal strategy is to use repression (Davenport, 2007; Earl, Soule and McCarthy, 2003; Moore, 2000).”

“While prior research has underscored the role of repression in upholding socio-economic stability (Boykoff 2007; Earl 2003; Earl et al. 2003, 2004, Davenport 2007), recent studies have unveiled the state’s aptitude for employing subtler forms of repression and diverse strategies for managing social…”

“Empirical evidence also suggests that repression of protests has a direct negative impact, deterring some from protests but could also, under certain circumstances, backfires and create waves of indignation instead (see, e.g. Davenport 2007; Earl, Soule & McCarthy 2003; Hess & Martin 2006).”

“While there is a consensus in the repression-dissent literature that dissent generates repression (Chenoweth, Perkovski, and Kang 2017; Davenport 2007), it remains unclear how repression shapes dissent.”

“11 The significant-cost-raising orientation we offer here is complementary to but distinct from the elimination-of-threats orientation offered in the literature (e.g. Davenport, 1995, 2007a; Zanger, 2000), which is more associated with benefits.”

“Much research shows that repression is a common response to dissent (Chenoweth et al. 2017; Combes and Fillieule 2011; Davenport 2007; Lichbach 1987; Tilly 1978), especially in non-democratic settings (Beiser-McGrath 2019; Carey 2006; Combes and Fillieule 2011; Keremo ğ lu et al. 2021).”

“In addition, democratic leaders may be too constrained to use repression even in times of heightened threat (Davenport 2007).”

“The vast body of research on state violence is focused on repression , which explains violence as resulting from dissent and threats to political authority (Gartner & Regan, 1996; Poe, 2004; Davenport, 2007b).”

“Indeed, dominant theories of atrocity in political science emphasise the potential instrumen - tal reasons perpetrators may have for such violent policies (Valentino 2014 ; Davenport 2007 ).”

“…International relations and conflict scholars continue to debate the political costs of committing human rights violations (HRVs) and the conditions under which governments are more or less likely to be punished (Moore 2000; Davenport 2007a; Pierskalla 2010; Shadmehr 2014; Esarey and Bryant 2019).”

“Individuals and groups using peaceful means to contend with the government are often the target of this repression (Davenport, 2007), which raises the costs of collective action when power holders see it as a threat.”

“Repressive state policies towards minorities, in particular, are challenging because they require both personnel and funds not always available to transitional regimes (Moore, 2000; Shellman, 2006; Davenport, 2007).”

“There are several explanations to account for both state repressive tactics and protester actions ( Davenport 2007; Earl 2003, 2006; Earl and Soule 2006; Earl et al. 2003; Ericson and Doyle 1999; Irons 2006; McAdam 1988; Piven and Cloward 1977).”

“They may rely on repression, or “the actual or threatened use of physical sanctions against an individual or organization” (Davenport 2007).”

“One tool that leaders turn to when they face threats to their rule is repression (Davenport 2007).”

“Repression also may involve violations that occur outside the context of a protest event, such as violations of “individual survival and security, such as freedom from torture, “disappearance,” imprisonment, extrajudicial execution, and mass killing” (Davenport 2007, p. 2).”

“However established, electoral institutions incentivize leaders to restrain their security forces from perpetrating abuse (Davenport & Armstrong, 2004; Davenport, 2007b).”

“Most studies testing the effect of democracy on repression have used measures derived from the Polity scale (Armstrong II, 2009; Davenport, 1999, 2007b; Davenport & Armstrong, 2004; De Mesquita et al., 2005) or from Freedom House (Fein, 1995).”

“In more repressive contexts, this often takes the form of cooptation (Gandhi & Przeworski, 2006; Xu, 2021), media manipulation (Guriev & Treisman, 2022), infiltration (Y. Long, 2018), and torture or mass murder (Davenport, 2007; Escribà-Folch, 2013).”

“The use of violence usually intensi fi es during periods of signi fi cant social upheavals, such as widespread unrest or civil wars, where severe violence and heavy-handed repression are used to suppress dissent and prevent the rise of rebellions (Davenport, 2007; Rozenas & Zhukov, 2019).”

“Indeed, Carey (2010) finds that nonviolent dissent is less likely to provoke a violent gov- ernment backlash.”

“Government repression, though, can take many forms (Davenport, 2007; Earl et al., 2003) and there is potential utility in disaggregating repression from exclusion.”

“Some repression research has investigated different types of autocratic states (Davenport, 2007c), the interaction between lower levels of international conflict and autocratic regime type could use more attention.”

“This understanding of state repression speaks to the idea of prevention rather than preemption and responsiveness (see, e.g., Davenport 2007a; Danneman and Ritter 2014; De Jaegher and Hoyer 2019 for a discussion on preemptive repression and how states responds after the onset of opposition).”

“I use the insights of the literature on repression in authoritarian regimes (e.g., Davenport 2007; Escribà-Folch 2013; Gerschewski 2013) and argue that individual income in conjunction with repression can affect political participation in authoritarian regimes.”

“…del gobierno que impiden la movilización mediante el hostigamiento, la vigilancia, las prohibiciones, el acoso y la intimidación de activistas, la división de organizaciones, la detención de activistas, la tortura, el encarcelamiento o incluso haciendo uso del asesinato (Davenport, 2007).”

“control for citizens via participation, so that grievances are expressed at the ballot rather than in violent protests (Davenport, 2007).”

“…the institutional channel of elections, or through social movements focused on reforming the system rather than replacing it.2 Though democracies certainly do use violence against dissidents (Davenport 2007), on the whole they are less likely to respond to social movements with overwhelming force.”

“Scholars agree that governments employ repression in response to threats from domestic actors to secure their political survival (Davenport, 2007).”

“Beyond their e ff ect on protesters and protest dynamics (Davenport 2007; Siegel 2011; Steinert-Threlkeld, Chan, and Joo 2022; Young 2019), we suggest, in what follows, that police responses can shape mass public opinion on the protests and the broader BLM movement.”

“4 For some exceptions, see a large literature on state repression (e.g., Davenport 2007).”

“…between preemptive and reactive repression (Ritter & Conrad, 2016), to wit between actions aimed either at constraining or eliminating dissidents (Davenport, 2007), and between selective, that is when repression is directed against either leaders and rank-and-file of the opposition, and…”

“State repression of activists has been the subject of much academic debate over the last three decades (Davenport, 2007; Earl, 2011; Earl & Braithwaite, 2022; Honari, 2018).”

“As protest erupts, the government is likely to respond with state repression (Davenport, 2007).”

“include many scholars who carry out work that spans the disciplines of the social sciences (Davenport 2007; Holden 1996; Kalmoe 2013; Pape 2014).”

“While some of these problems have been addressed by incorporation of local newspapers, reliance on newswires, or multiple media sources (Davenport 2007; Jenkins andMaher 2016), other problems remain, and new ones emerge.1 Persisting concerns relate to the degree of comprehensiveness and…”

“The role of democratic institutions in pacifying political grievances has frequently been discussed in political conflict literature (Krain and Myers 1997; Hegre 2001; Vreeland 2008; Hendrix and Haggard 2015), and it is known as ‘domestic democratic peace’ (Davenport 2007).”

“The precise reason for the finding, however, is unclear” (Davenport, 2007a, p. 14).”

“The term has been used to describe a wide variety of actions, from highly intensive forms to low-intensity repression (Davenport 2007; Carey 2006; Chang and Vitale 2013).”

“Even expanding our understanding of motives in this way does not fully account for the range of motives involved in torture, as it assumes that that there is a purpose to torture and that government officials use torture as a rational way to achieve a desired end (Davenport 2007).”

“…is the “Repression-Mobilization Nexus,” which employs concepts from the social movement literature, namely political process theory: political opportunity structure, mobilizing structures, as well as cultural frames (see Davenport, 2005, 2007; Hooge and Marien, 2013; Sika, 2020, 2023).”

“Davenport (2007).”

“Quoted in Sumanta Bannerjee, “Beyond Naxalbari” Economic and Political Weekly 41(29) (2006), pp.”

“In fact, Soule and Davenport (2009, p. 1) have argued that ‘‘the character of the protest event and the threat to police’’ are the most important variables that predict the use of force against protesters. Directly related to our inquiry is a study by McCarthy, Martin, and McPhail (2007) that compared police reactions…”