Cited by 3,843Mental Health Research TopicsPsychometric Methodologies and TestingAttachment and Relationship Dynamics

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Diary Methods: Capturing Life as it is Lived

Bolger, Niall, Davis, Angelina, Rafaeli, Eshkol·2003·Annual Review of Psychology

DOI 10.1146/annurev.psych.54.101601.145030

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Abstract

In diary studies, people provide frequent reports on the events and experiences of their daily lives. These reports capture the particulars of experience in a way that is not possible using traditional designs. We review the types of research questions that diary methods are best equipped to answer, the main designs that can be used, current technology for obtaining diary reports, and appropriate data analysis strategies. Major recent developments include the use of electronic forms of data collection and multilevel models in data analysis. We identify several areas of research opportunities: 1. in technology, combining electronic diary reports with collateral measures such as ambulatory heart rate; 2. in measurement, switching from measures based on between-person differences to those based on within-person changes; and 3. in research questions, using diaries to (a) explain why people differ in variability rather than mean level, (b) study change processes during major events and transitions, and (c) study interpersonal processes using dyadic and group diary methods.

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“EMA studies bene ﬁ t from high ecological validity and are less susceptible to recall biases than other self-report methodologies because they capture life “ as it is lived ” (Bolger et al., 2003).”
Virtual Steps: The Experience of Walking for a Lifelong Wheelchair User in Virtual Reality
Taheri, A., Caetano, A., & Sra, M. (2024) · IEEE Conference on Virtual Reality and 3D User Interfaces · doi:10.1109/vr58804.2024.00040 · Cited by 10
“This method’s introspective and longitudinal nature made it particularly suitable for this exploratory study, where the participant’s subjective experience was paramount [4,14].”
Giving it all You've Got: How Daily Self‐Sacrifice and Self‐Esteem Regulate the Double‐Edged Effects of Callings
Clinton, M. E., Conway, N., Sturges, J., & McFarland, A. (2023) · Journal of Management Studies · doi:10.1111/joms.13013 · Cited by 13
Informal learning from dealing with software-related problems in the digital workplace
Leiß, T. V., & Rausch, A. (2023) · Journal of Workplace Learning · doi:10.1108/jwl-03-2023-0042 · Cited by 16
“The diary method as a research method enables retrospective memory bias to be reduced as well as an investigation in situ (Rausch et al. , 2022; Bolger et al. , 2003; Ohly et al. , 2010).”
Method
Teaching in uncertain times: Exploring links between the pandemic, assessment workload, and teacher wellbeing in England
Johnson, M. H., & Coleman, V. (2023) · Research in education (Manchester) · doi:10.1177/00345237231195270 · Cited by 10
“This closeness also means that diary methods can counteract memory errors and retrospection, which are a potential weakness of other recall-based methods (Bolger et al., 2003; Cucu-Oancea, 2013).”
Workplace support for newly qualified doctors and secondary school teachers: A comparative analysis
Foster‐Collins, H., Mattick, K. L., & Baumfield, V. M. (2023) · British Educational Research Journal · doi:10.1002/berj.3879 · Cited by 13
Workers’ whole day workload and next day cognitive performance
Hernandez, R., Jin, H., Pyatak, E. A., Roll, S. C., & Schneider, S. (2023) · Current Psychology · doi:10.1007/s12144-023-04400-y · Cited by 8
“With one time measurements, however, day to day variability in cognitive performance cannot be captured and, thus, ques - tions about factors impacting this variability cannot be investigated (Bolger et al., 2003).”
Background
Daily Sexual Behavior, Sexual Esteem, and Body Image in Transgender and Cisgender Individuals
Kennis, M., Duecker, F., Elaut, E., T'Sjoen, G., Loeys, T., Sack, A., & Dewitte, M. (2022) · Journal of Sex Research · doi:10.1080/00224499.2022.2158172 · Cited by 10
“Since participants’ reports are closer in time to their actual experience, they are less likely to rely on the peak-end rule, in which participants grant more weight to the most intense and most recent experiences in a certain time frame (Bolger et al., 2003).”
Background
Having time to oneself in times of extended togetherness: Solitude experiences during the COVID‐19 pandemic
Choi, Y., Pauly, T., Garza, E. Z., Broen, T., Gerstorf, D., & Hoppmann, C. A. (2022) · Applied Psychology Health and Well-Being · doi:10.1111/aphw.12401 · Cited by 15
Cognitive Behavioral Therapy-Based Comprehensive Self-Management Program Improves Presenteeism in Persons with Irritable Bowel Syndrome: A Secondary Data Analysis
Yang, P.-L., Matthews, S. W., Burr, R. L., Cain, K. C., Barney, P., Zia, J. K., Heitkemper, M. M., & Kamp, K. (2022) · International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health · doi:10.3390/ijerph19053003 · Cited by 10
“Prospective diaries have been preferred to retrospective reports for collection of daily health-behavior data, due to the shorter recall periods [22,34].”
Background
Incorporating ecological momentary assessment into multimethod investigations of cognitive aging: Promise and practical considerations.
Crawford, J. L., English, T., & Braver, T. S. (2022) · Psychology and Aging · doi:10.1037/pag0000646 · Cited by 19
“…thoughts, feelings, or behaviors in daily life, such as Experience Sampling Methods (ESM; Csikszentmihalyi & Larson, 2014), Ambulatory Assessment (AA; Trull & Ebner-Priemer, 2013), and daily diary methods (e.g., Bolger et al., 2003), for the purposes of this review, we will use the term EMA.”
Method
Affective states and nonsuicidal self‐injury (NSSI): Results from an ecological momentary assessment study of veterans with NSSI disorder
Dillon, K. H., Glenn, J. J., Dennis, P. A., Mann, A. J., Deming, C. A., Aho, N. A., Hertzberg, J. S., DeBeer, B. B., Meyer, E. C., Morissette, S. B., et al. (2021) · Suicide and Life-Threatening Behavior · doi:10.1111/sltb.12818 · Cited by 12
Mothers' and fathers' perceptions of daily mealtime coparenting.
Nelson, J. A., & Holub, S. C. (2021) · Appetite · doi:10.1016/j.appet.2021.105757 · Cited by 10
A day in the life of frontline manufacturing personnel: A diary-based safety study
Pickup, S., Paton, K., Hayes, C., & Morrison, B. A. (2020) · Safety Science · doi:10.1016/j.ssci.2020.104992 · Cited by 10
Work‐related technology use during nonwork time and its consequences: A resource‐oriented perspective
Schlachter, S., Inceoglu, I., McDowall, A., & Cropley, M. (2025) · Journal of Occupational and Organizational Psychology · doi:10.1111/joop.70047 · Cited by 12
“In order to maintain participants' commitment to the study, the diaries were designed to be as short as possible (Bolger et al., 2003; Ohly et al., 2010).”
Evaluating the Impact of a Positive Youth Development Program Using Student Diaries: Tin Ka Ping P.A.T.H.S. Project in Mainland China
Tan, L.-D., Shek, D. T. L., & Li, X. (2025) · Applied Research in Quality of Life · doi:10.1007/s11482-025-10441-1 · Cited by 9
“This procedure ensured a rigorous and transparent exclusion protocol, which aligns with common practices in diary-based studies to guarantee data quality (Alaszewski, 2006; Bolger et al., 2003).”
Exploring emotions beyond the laboratory: A review of emotional and physiological ecological momentary assessment methods in children and youth
Sosa‐Hernandez, L., Vogel, N., Frankiewicz, K., Reaume, C. L., Drew, A., Neufeld, S. M., & Thomassin, K. (2024) · Psychophysiology · doi:10.1111/psyp.14699 · Cited by 13
“The three primary categories of study designs for EMA are time-based, event-based, and device-contingent protocols (Bolger et al., 2003).”
Learning strategies and procrastination as a function of need satisfaction and autonomous motivation: A diary study
Tahiri, M. J. B., & Mouratidis, A. A. (2024) · European Journal of Education · doi:10.1111/ejed.12645 · Cited by 14
Moment-to-moment affective dynamics in schizophrenia and bipolar disorder
So, S. H., Chau, A. K. C., Chung, L. K.-H., Leung, C.-M., Chong, G. H.-C., Chang, W. C., Mak, A. D. P., Chan, S. S. M., Lee, S., & Sommer, I. E. (2023) · European Psychiatry · doi:10.1192/j.eurpsy.2023.2438 · Cited by 15
A Smart Home for ‘Us’: Understanding and Designing a Parent-Child Engagement Mechanism for Child Access and Participation in the Smart Home
Sun, K. (2023) · ACM International Conference on Interaction Design and Children (IDC) · doi:10.1145/3585088.3593927 · Cited by 9
“While the first two steps contextualize RQ1 from both parents and children’s perspective based on their recall of potentially the most memorable experiences, the following diary study further examines families’ in situ smart home interactions and behaviors (RQ1) in a more natural and spontaneous context [6] through lo…”
Background
The Burden of Subscribing: How Young People Experience Digital News Subscriptions
Borchgrevink-Brækhus, M., & Moe, H. (2023) · Journalism Studies · doi:10.1080/1461670x.2023.2196584 · Cited by 9
“Reported bene ﬁ ts include lowering chances of recall bias, where informants are provided with more freedom of expression as compared to interview situations (Bolger, Davis, and Rafaeli 2003; Kaun 2010).”
Charting the Journey of Young Leaders: A New Model of Transferability of Skills
Karagianni, D., Lainidi, O., & Montgomery, A. (2023) · Merits · doi:10.3390/merits3010013 · Cited by 13
“The recommendations of Bolger, Davis and Rafaeli [33] were taken into account when designing the diaries.”
Background
Partners' internal stress and well‐being : The role of dyadic coping and problem resolution
Donato, S., Pagani, A. F., Rosta‐Filep, O., Faggiano, M., Pajardi, D., Martos, T., Sallay, V., & Randall, A. K. (2022) · Personal Relationships · doi:10.1111/pere.12465 · Cited by 12
Design decisions and data completeness for experience sampling methods used in psychosis: systematic review
Deakin, E., Ng, F., Young, E., Thorpe, N., Newby, C., Coupland, C., Craven, M. P., & Slade, M. (2022) · BMC Psychiatry · doi:10.1186/s12888-022-04319-x · Cited by 9
“By asking participants to report experiences over a period of time, researchers can investigate fluctuations between variables which may not be captured using other methods [7].”
Background
Feeling Appreciated Predicts Prosocial Motivation in Avoidantly Attached Individuals
Schrage, K. M., Le, B. M., Stellar, J., & Impett, E. A. (2022) · Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin · doi:10.1177/01461672221122515 · Cited by 9
“The present research relied exclusively on daily report surveys, which have a number of strengths, such as enhancing ecological validity and reducing retrospective biases (Bolger et al., 2003).”
BackgroundMethod
How primary and secondary appraisals of daily stressful events influence negative and positive affect
Castro, J. F., Ferrer, I., Edo, S., & Rovira, T. (2022) · Anales de Psicología · doi:10.6018/analesps.500581 · Cited by 12
“real time psychological data using different mobile devices, regardless of the individual's location (Bolger et al., 2003).”
Background
The Impact of Internalized Racism on Daily Depressive Symptoms Among Black American Adolescents
Seaton, E. K., Iida, M., & Morris, K. S. (2022) · Adversity and Resilience Science · doi:10.1007/s42844-022-00061-1 · Cited by 14
“Measurement reactivity due to repeated, daily assessments is a concern in daily diary studies, although research has shown that this issue is less likely to occur for studies with less than 30 days of observation (Bolger et al., 2003).”
Background
On the Road Together: Issues Observed in the Process of a Research Duo Working Together in a Long-Term and Intense Collaboration in an Inclusive Research Project
Sergeant, S., Sandvoort, H., van Hove, G., Embregts, P., van den Bogaard, K. V. D., Taminiau, E. F., & Schippers, A. (2022) · The social science · doi:10.3390/socsci11050185 · Cited by 9
“This event-based design was appropriate because the process of working together included triggering events—events that the research duo experienced as very positive or very negative—and attention to these could unfold dynamic phenomena (Bolger et al. 2003, pp. 590–91).”
Method
Mobile phones and the experience of time: New perspectives from a deprivation study of teenagers
Rosenberg, H., Blondheim, M., & Porat, C. S.-B. (2022) · Time & Society · doi:10.1177/0961463x221077492 · Cited by 12
“This is an accepted method in studies that seek to analyze the daily lives of subjects and the activities and thoughts that develop in their course (Bolger et al., 2003).”
Method
From Social Avoidance to Substance Use: Working Memory and Negative Affectivity Predict Maladaptive Regulatory Behaviors in Daily Life Across Diagnostic Groups
Coifman, K. G., & Aurora, P. (2022) · Cognitive Therapy and Research · doi:10.1007/s10608-021-10284-8 · Cited by 8
“Three participants were dropped from analyses because their diary compliance was less than two SDs below the mean (Bolger et al., 2003).”
Background
Feel to Heal: Negative Emotion Differentiation Promotes Medication Adherence in Multiple Sclerosis
Seah, T. H. S., Almahmoud, S. Y., & Coifman, K. G. (2022) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2021.687497 · Cited by 7
Analysing relationships between work and training in order to prevent psychosocial risks
Vidal-Gomel, C., & Delgoulet, C. (2022) · Safety Science · doi:10.1016/j.ssci.2021.105517 · Cited by 9
“This logbook was kept regularly from the beginning of the design process for this training course, and notably makes it possible to reconstruct in hindsight events that could not be anticipated and/or filmed (Bolger, Davis & Rafaeli, 2003).”
Triadic family structures and their day‐to‐day dynamics from an adolescent perspective: A multilevel latent profile analysis
Xia, M., Bray, B. C., & Fosco, G. M. (2021) · Family Process · doi:10.1111/famp.12722 · Cited by 12
A Retrospective and a Look Forward: Lessons Learned From Researching Emotions In-the-Wild
Tag, B., Gonçalves, J., Webber, S. E., Koval, P., & Kostakos, V. (2021) · IEEE Pervasive Computing · doi:10.1109/mprv.2021.3106272 · Cited by 14
“Logging can span a few days or several months, 6 providing insights into experiences over time.”
Background
Cognitive and social mechanisms: the role of emotions in creativity through work-based learning from a functionalist perspective
Liu, W., Li, J. W., & Zhou, Q. (2021) · Chinese Management Studies · doi:10.1108/cms-02-2020-0049 · Cited by 10
Investigating the Use of Electronic Well-being Diaries Completed Within a Psychoeducation Program for University Students: Longitudinal Text Analysis Study
Linton, M., Jelbert, S., Kidger, J., Morris, R. W., Biddle, L., & Hood, B. (2021) · Journal of Medical Internet Research · doi:10.2196/25279 · Cited by 9
“Diaries offer writers a naturalistic space to reflect on experiences, and provide researchers with a depth of detail that is difficult to accurately achieve when relying on tools that require participants to retrospectively recall events from their past [17].”
On the Interpersonal Function of Metaphor Use
Fetterman, A. K., Evans, N. D., & Covarrubias, J. J. (2020) · Social Psychology · doi:10.1027/1864-9335/a000431 · Cited by 8
Adolescent Emotion Network Dynamics in Daily Life and Implications for Depression
Lydon-Staley, D. M., Xia, M., Mak, H. W., & Fosco, G. (2018) · doi:10.31234/osf.io/7j92y · Cited by 8
The relationship between smartphone addiction, academic procrastination, and anxiety: evidence from a diary-based approach
Su, M., Zhang, J., Xu, Y., & Hu, J. (2025) · Acta Psychologica · doi:10.1016/j.actpsy.2025.105517 · Cited by 13
The National Study of Daily Experiences: Protocol for Assessments of Daily Stress, Well-Being, Health, and Salivary Biomarkers in a Longitudinal Cohort
Almeida, D. M., Charles, S. T., Piazza, J., Stawski, R., Cichy, K., Cerino, E., Rush, J., Nicholson, J. S., Holmberg, J. C., Cramer, N., et al. (2025) · JMIR Research Protocols · doi:10.2196/76453 · Cited by 8
Becoming Competent Consumers: Exploring the Dynamics of the Consumer Socialization Process Between Parents and Their Adolescents
Dhondt, B., de Sompel, D. V., & Hudders, L. (2025) · Journal of Consumer Affairs · doi:10.1111/joca.70012 · Cited by 8
Designing Urban Noticing Probes for Community Animals and Cohabitation in Türkiye
Cucumak, S., & Subaşı, Ö. (2025) · CHI Conference on Human Factors in Computing Systems · doi:10.1145/3706598.3713977 · Cited by 8
“Inspired by prior studies [6, 49], the probe aimed to reveal everyday noticings through questions about routines, dining locations, moods, and questions for deeper engagement [19].”
Team-Enacted Use vs. Developer-Needed Use of Agile Practices: How Perceptual (In-)Congruence and Team Feedback-Seeking Shape Developer Well-Being
Benlian, A., Pinski, M., & Adam, M. (2025) · Information Systems Research · doi:10.1287/isre.2023.0402 · Cited by 10
The Positive Effect of pro‐Environmental Behavior on Eudaimonic Well‐Being in Young Adults: A Daily Diary Study Using the Within‐Person Encouragement Design
Caldaroni, S., Gerbino, M., Schmiedek, F., Neubauer, A., Manfredi, L., Gregori, F., Pastorelli, C., Corbelli, G., & Zuffianò, A. (2025) · Journal of Personality · doi:10.1111/jopy.13021 · Cited by 7
“Employing the Within-Person Encouragement Design (WPED; Schmiedek and Neubauer 2020) combined with Dynamic Structural Equation Modeling (DSEM; Hamaker et al. 2018), we analyzed daily diaries (Bolger et al. 2003) collected from a sample of Italian young adults followed over a period of 21 days.”
Relations between daily stressful events, exertion, heart rate variability, and thoracolumbar fascia deformability: a case report
Brandl, A., Engel, R., Egner, C., Schleip, R., & Schubert, C. (2024) · Journal of Medical Case Reports · doi:10.1186/s13256-024-04935-z · Cited by 9
“Fourth, the self-reported results are limited to subjective retrospective ratings, which can lead to response bias [65].”
Resilience and the Dynamics of Job Demands: A Diary Study on Interactions in Healthcare Professionals During the COVID ‐19 Pandemic
Mazzetti, G., Çetin, M., Guglielmi, D., & Simbula, S. (2024) · Journal of Advanced Nursing · doi:10.1111/jan.16629 · Cited by 14
“Participants received regular reminders to complete their entries at consistent times each day, which helped minimise recall bias (Bolger, Davis, and Rafaeli 2003).”
Understanding Development of Social Games Through Diary Studies
Haqq, D., Fan, J.-X., Saaty, M., Wang, W.-L., Andrus, N., & Mccrickard, D. (2024) · Frontiers in Education Conference · doi:10.1109/fie61694.2024.10893198 · Cited by 8
“…diary studies can place significant demands on participants, highlighting the potential impact that an onerous design may have on participants’ adherence to study protocols, particularly those guiding the frequency, quality, and consistency of log entries throughout the duration of the study [12].”
Influential

Authors: Bolger, N., Davis, A., & Rafaeli, E.
Affiliations: New York University (US)
ORCID: Bolger, Niall
Rafaeli, Eshkol
Venue: Annual Review of Psychology
Publisher: Annual Reviews
Published: 2003-02
Volume: 54
Issue: 1
Pages: 579-616
ISSN: 0066-4308 (ISSN-L)
1545-2085
DOI: 10.1146/annurev.psych.54.101601.145030
OpenAlex: W2166190112
Cited by: 3,843
References: 0
Citations by year: 2026: 210 · 2025: 205 · 2024: 203 · 2023: 161 · 2022: 212 · 2021: 257 · 2020: 282 · 2019: 207 · 2018: 204 · 2017: 214 · 2016: 177 · 2015: 215 · 2014: 180 · 2013: 206 · 2012: 195
FWCI: 5.68
Type: journal article
Language: en
Open access: closed
Locations: Annual Review of Psychology (publishedVersion)
PubMed (publishedVersion)
Funders: National Institute of Mental Health (R01MH060366)
Topics: Social Sciences › Psychology › Experimental and Cognitive Psychology › Mental Health Research Topics
Social Sciences › Decision Sciences › Management Science and Operations Research › Psychometric Methodologies and Testing
Social Sciences › Psychology › Social Psychology › Attachment and Relationship Dynamics
Keywords: diary method, everyday experience, within-person variability, ambulatory heart rate, multilevel models, within-person change, interpersonal processes, life transitions, data collection technology
MeSH terms: Data Collection, Humans, Individuality, Life Change Events, Medical Records, Personality Assessment, Software, User-Computer Interface, Writing

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Diary Methods: Capturing Life as it is Lived

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