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Diary Methods: Capturing Life as it is Lived
Abstract
In diary studies, people provide frequent reports on the events and experiences of their daily lives. These reports capture the particulars of experience in a way that is not possible using traditional designs. We review the types of research questions that diary methods are best equipped to answer, the main designs that can be used, current technology for obtaining diary reports, and appropriate data analysis strategies. Major recent developments include the use of electronic forms of data collection and multilevel models in data analysis. We identify several areas of research opportunities: 1. in technology, combining electronic diary reports with collateral measures such as ambulatory heart rate; 2. in measurement, switching from measures based on between-person differences to those based on within-person changes; and 3. in research questions, using diaries to (a) explain why people differ in variability rather than mean level, (b) study change processes during major events and transitions, and (c) study interpersonal processes using dyadic and group diary methods.
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“Within-person analyses of repeated daily measures are particularly suited to investigating these short-term processes and linkages (Bolger, Davis, & Rafaeli, 2003).”
From What's love got to do with it? Social functioning, perceived health, and daily happiness in married octogenarians (2010) · cites this paper as Bolger, Davis, & Rafaeli, 2003
In the citing paper
“In this manner, retrospection is minimized, and therefore so are the effects of recall bias (20).”
From A diary study to open up the black box of overtime work among university faculty members (2008) · cites this paper as [20]
In the citing paper
“This methodology helps enhance compliance and provides precise information on time and date of diary entries.8,113,115”
From Psychological aspects of persistent pain: Current state of the science (2004) · cites this paper as [8]
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“Diary Entries are long-term written accounts that are suitable for studying the long-term effect of an event, when the event cannot be studied in a laboratory, and when researchers want to know how participants reflect about an experience through time (Bolger et al., 2003).”
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Fritz, J., Piccirillo, M. L., Cohen, Z. D., Frumkin, M. R., Kirtley, O. J., Moeller, J., Neubauer, A. B., Norris, L. A., Schuurman, N. K., Snippe, E., et al. (2024) · Advances in Methods and Practices in Psychological Science · doi:10.1177/25152459241267912 · Cited by 106
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“…al. 2019; Wallace and Gruber 1989), biographies of persons showing eminence in tight conceptual spaces (Fölsing 1997; Pickover 2008), diary studies (Bolger et al. 2003; Mehl and Conner 2012), experience sampling methods (Hormuth 1986; Larson and Csikszentmihalyi 2014), historiometric studies…”
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“iary stu ies provide researchers with the opport it of ca t ri “life as it is li e ” [64] ( .”
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“…of researchers to follow individuals with notepads 13 or video cameras 14 and asking individuals to use portable devices (such as personal digital assistants, beepers, wristwatches and smartphones) that prompt them to complete daily diaries or in-the-moment ‘experience sampling’ surveys 15–19 .”
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“To collect more ecologically valid self-report data, researchers devised Diary Study [8] and Experience Sampling Method (ESM, often interchangeable with ecological momentary assessment or EMA) [64].”
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BackgroundOlder adults’ perceptions of usefulness of personal health records
Price, M. M., Pak, R., Müller, H., & Stronge, A. (2013) · Universal Access in the Information Society · doi:10.1007/s10209-012-0275-y · Cited by 45
Bellhäuser, H., Dignath, C., & Theobald, M. (2023) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2023.1125873 · Cited by 64
“Learners self-report their application of SRL strategies before and after a learning session, which complies with the dynamic nature of SRL and reduces the biases of retrospective questionnaires (Bolger et al., 2003; Klug et al., 2011).”
BackgroundUnderstanding Platform Mediated Work-Life: A Diary Study with Gig Economy Freelancers
de la Vega, J. C. A., Cecchinato, M. E., Rooksby, J., & Newbold, J. W. (2023) · Proceedings of the ACM on Human-Computer Interaction · doi:10.1145/3579539 · Cited by 44
“’s [16] recommendations for mitigating the burden of diary studies by limiting the diary period to 14 days.”
BackgroundStart Small, not Random: Why does Justifying your Time-Lag Matter?
Griep, Y., Vranjes, I., Kraak, J., Dudda, L. A., & Li, Y. (2021) · The Spanish Journal of Psychology · doi:10.1017/sjp.2021.42 · Cited by 45
“Received 11 June 2021; Revised 22 July 2021; Accepted 02 August 2021 Keywords: repeated measurement, time, time-lags, time-sensitive theory It has become increasingly common in the fields of Organizational Behavior (OB; see Bolger et al., 2003; Fisher & To, 2012; Spector &Meier, 2014”
BackgroundDaily Couple Experiences and Parent Affect in Families of Children with Versus Without Autism
Hartley, S. L., DaWalt, L. S., & Schultz, H. M. (2017) · Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders · doi:10.1007/s10803-017-3088-2 · Cited by 43
Zhang, J., Wang, Y., & Gao, F. (2023) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2023.1077357 · Cited by 77
Parents’ daily involvement in children’s math homework and activities during early elementary school
Wu, J., Barger, M. M., Oh, D. D., & Pomerantz, E. M. (2022) · Child Development · doi:10.1111/cdev.13774 · Cited by 70
Krehl, E., & Büttgen, M. (2022) · German Journal of Human Resource Management Zeitschrift für Personalforschung · doi:10.1177/23970022221083697 · Cited by 81
“First, qualitative daily diaries capture the leaders’ immediate and spontaneous assessment of their daily experiences, using digital tools to support leadership practices (Bolger et al., 2003; Patterson, 2005; Poppleton et al., 2008).”
BackgroundMethodBohlayer, C., & Gielnik, M. M. (2022) · Journal of Business Venturing · doi:10.1016/j.jbusvent.2022.106259 · Cited by 55
Hoppler, S. S., Segerer, R., & Nikitin, J. (2022) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2021.743074 · Cited by 41
Steimle, S., Gassman-Pines, A., Johnson, A. D., Hines, C., & Ryan, R. (2021) · Child Development · doi:10.1111/cdev.13659 · Cited by 41
“Similarly, a large literature has documented that adults’ psychological well- being varies day- to- day (e.g., Bolger et al., 2003), and that child socioemotional well- being varies in tandem with parents’ (e.g., GassmanPines, 2011).”
BackgroundHägg, G. (2021) · International Journal of Entrepreneurial Behaviour & Research · doi:10.1108/ijebr-07-2020-0496 · Cited by 56
Pak, K., Kooij, D. T. A. M., de Lange, A. D., Meyers, M., & van Veldhoven, M. (2020) · Career Development International · doi:10.1108/cdi-10-2018-0271 · Cited by 40
Jia, F., Meng, J., Ma, Y., & Mao, Y. (2024) · System · doi:10.1016/j.system.2024.103312 · Cited by 40
Dynamic structural equation models with binary and ordinal outcomes in Mplus
McNeish, D., Somers, J. A., & Savord, A. (2023) · Behavior Research Methods · doi:10.3758/s13428-023-02107-3 · Cited by 41
Adolescent Psychosocial Adjustment during COVID-19: An Intensive Longitudinal Study
Wang, M., Henry, D. A., Scanlon, C. L., Toro, J. D., & Voltin, S. E. (2022) · Journal of Clinical Child & Adolescent Psychology · doi:10.1080/15374416.2021.2007487 · Cited by 45
Human-Robot Interaction in Groups: Methodological and Research Practices
Oliveira, R., Arriaga, P., & Paiva, A. (2021) · Multimodal Technologies and Interaction · doi:10.3390/mti5100059 · Cited by 41
“, effects of the interaction with robots that outlive an initial interaction and that are durable in time) of robots in home or school-like environments [73,74].”
BackgroundMethodWilson‐Nash, C., & Tinson, J. (2021) · Journal of Marketing Management · doi:10.1080/0267257x.2021.1945662 · Cited by 39
“Furthermore, the mechanism also records the temporal aspects of people’s lives, capturing their thoughts and actions at a specific moment in time (Bolger et al., 2003).”
BackgroundWhat are character strengths good for? A daily diary study on character strengths enactment
Gander, F., Wagner, L., Amann, L., & Ruch, W. (2021) · Journal of Positive Psychology · doi:10.1080/17439760.2021.1926532 · Cited by 39
“Moreover, studying state (rather than trait) levels does not require people to remember and aggregate their past behavior, and it should therefore be less prone to recall bias (Bolger et al., 2003).”
BackgroundEverts, R., Hitters, E., & Berkers, P. (2021) · Creative Industries Journal · doi:10.1080/17510694.2021.1899499 · Cited by 50
Wang, M., Zepeda, C. D., Qin, X., Toro, J. D., & Binning, K. R. (2021) · Child Development · doi:10.1111/cdev.13560 · Cited by 40
How transformational leadership transforms followers’ affect and work engagement
Bader, B., Gielnik, M. M., & Bledow, R. (2022) · European Journal of Work and Organizational Psychology · doi:10.1080/1359432x.2022.2161368 · Cited by 65
“Second, the effects of a diary study design on respondents’ answers are a potential limitation (Bolger et al., 2003).”
BackgroundPractical Recommendations for Considering Culture, Race, and Ethnicity in Personality PsychologyPreprint
Arshad, M., & Chung, J. (2021) · Social & Personality Psychology Compass · doi:10.31219/osf.io/bjgh4 · Cited by 38
Cohen, L. H., Gunthert, K. C., Butler, A. C., Parrish, B. P., Wenze, S. J., & Beck, J. S. (2008) · Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology · doi:10.1037/a0014131 · Cited by 38
Balk, Y. A., de Jonge, J., Geurts, S. A. E., & Oerlemans, W. G. M. (2019) · Psychology of Sport and Exercise · doi:10.1016/j.psychsport.2019.04.020 · Cited by 37
Hennekam, S., Ladge, J. J., & Powell, G. N. (2021) · Journal of Vocational Behavior · doi:10.1016/j.jvb.2021.103621 · Cited by 43
Do challenge and hindrance job demands prepare employees to demonstrate resilience?
Schilbach, M., Baethge, A., & Rigotti, T. (2021) · Journal of Occupational Health Psychology · doi:10.1037/ocp0000282 · Cited by 37
“Additionally, we assessed job demands using weekly diaries, examining “life as it is lived” (Bolger et al., 2003, p. 597), which further enabled us to investigate the effect of demands’ variance on employee resilience.”
MethodRumble, M. E., Keefe, F. J., Edinger, J. D., Porter, L. S., & Garst, J. L. (2005) · Journal of Pain and Symptom Management · doi:10.1016/j.jpainsymman.2005.02.013 · Cited by 35
Hu, Z., & Xiang, Y. (2022) · International Journal of Mental Health and Addiction · doi:10.1007/s11469-022-00892-0 · Cited by 41
“Besides, this research method is close to life and is of good authenticity (Bolger et al., 2003).”
What Drives Preventive Health Behavior During a Global Pandemic? Emotion and Worry
Coifman, K. G., Disabato, D. J., Aurora, P., Seah, T. H. S., Mitchell, B. J., Simonovic, N., Foust, J. L., Sidney, P., Thompson, C. A., & Taber, J. M. (2021) · Annals of Behavioral Medicine · doi:10.1093/abm/kaab048 · Cited by 36
“Indeed, experience sampling methodology captures reports in the midst of daily living, increasing sensitivity to contextual parameters, greatly influencing how emotion and cognition drive behavior [40, 41].”
BackgroundBalzarini, R. N., Muise, A., Zoppolat, G., Gesselman, A. N., Lehmiller, J. J., Garcia, J. R., Slatcher, R. B., & Mark, K. P. (2022) · Archives of Sexual Behavior · doi:10.1007/s10508-022-02365-w · Cited by 38
“We assessed the constructs of interest using truncated versions of the focal measures or the most representative single item from well-validated scales to keep the survey as brief as possible in order to reduce fatigue, increase efficiency, and minimize participant attrition (Bolger et al., 2003).”
MethodFatigue among children with a chronic disease: a cross-sectional study
der Vlist, M. M. N.-V., Dalmeijer, G., Grootenhuis, M., van der Ent, K., van den Heuvel-Eibrink, M. M., Swart, J., van de Putte, E. M., & Nijhof, S. (2021) · BMJ Paediatrics Open · doi:10.1136/bmjpo-2020-000958 · Cited by 36
Delrue, J., Vansteenkiste, M., Mouratidis, A., Gevaert, K., Vande Broek, G., & Haerens, L. (2017) · Psychology of Sport and Exercise · doi:10.1016/j.psychsport.2017.03.010 · Cited by 35
Business modeling under adversity: Resilience in international firms
Galkina, T., Atkova, I., & Gabrielsson, P. (2023) · Strategic Entrepreneurship Journal · doi:10.1002/sej.1474 · Cited by 42
“Finally, it also enables a dramatic reduction in the likelihood of retrospection, as time elapsed between an event and its record remains relatively short, thereby increasing research reliability (Bolger et al., 2003).”
Background
Metadata
- Authors
- Bolger, N., Davis, A., & Rafaeli, E.
- Affiliations
- New York University (US)
- Venue
- Annual Review of Psychology
- Publisher
- Annual Reviews
- Published
- 2003-02
- Volume
- 54
- Issue
- 1
- Pages
- 579-616
- ISSN
- 0066-4308 (ISSN-L)
- 1545-2085
- OpenAlex
- W2166190112
- Cited by
- 3,843
- References
- 0
- Citations by year
- 2026: 210 · 2025: 205 · 2024: 203 · 2023: 161 · 2022: 212 · 2021: 257 · 2020: 282 · 2019: 207 · 2018: 204 · 2017: 214 · 2016: 177 · 2015: 215 · 2014: 180 · 2013: 206 · 2012: 195
- FWCI
- 5.68
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- closed
- Locations
- Annual Review of Psychology (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- Funders
- National Institute of Mental Health (R01MH060366)
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Experimental and Cognitive Psychology › Mental Health Research Topics
- Social Sciences › Decision Sciences › Management Science and Operations Research › Psychometric Methodologies and Testing
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Social Psychology › Attachment and Relationship Dynamics
- Keywords
- diary method, everyday experience, within-person variability, ambulatory heart rate, multilevel models, within-person change, interpersonal processes, life transitions, data collection technology
- MeSH terms
- Data Collection, Humans, Individuality, Life Change Events, Medical Records, Personality Assessment, Software, User-Computer Interface, Writing
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