Cited by 3,843Mental Health Research TopicsPsychometric Methodologies and TestingAttachment and Relationship Dynamics

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Diary Methods: Capturing Life as it is Lived

Bolger, Niall, Davis, Angelina, Rafaeli, Eshkol·2003·Annual Review of Psychology

DOI 10.1146/annurev.psych.54.101601.145030

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Abstract

In diary studies, people provide frequent reports on the events and experiences of their daily lives. These reports capture the particulars of experience in a way that is not possible using traditional designs. We review the types of research questions that diary methods are best equipped to answer, the main designs that can be used, current technology for obtaining diary reports, and appropriate data analysis strategies. Major recent developments include the use of electronic forms of data collection and multilevel models in data analysis. We identify several areas of research opportunities: 1. in technology, combining electronic diary reports with collateral measures such as ambulatory heart rate; 2. in measurement, switching from measures based on between-person differences to those based on within-person changes; and 3. in research questions, using diaries to (a) explain why people differ in variability rather than mean level, (b) study change processes during major events and transitions, and (c) study interpersonal processes using dyadic and group diary methods.

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A “Viral Epistolary” and Psychosocial Spirituality: Restoring Transcendental Meaning During COVID-19 Through a Digital Community Letter-Writing Project
Vincenzo, C. D., Serio, F., Franceschi, A., Barbagallo, S., & Zamperini, A. (2022) · Pastoral Psychology · doi:10.1007/s11089-021-00991-0 · Cited by 26
Qualitative Research Studies Online: Using Prompted Weekly Journal Entries During the COVID-19 Pandemic
Rudrum, S., Casey, R., Frank, L., Brickner, R. K., MacKenzie, S., Carlson, J., & Rondinelli, E. (2022) · International Journal of Qualitative Methods · doi:10.1177/16094069221093138 · Cited by 25
“This richness of data is a major strength of the method (Eidse & Turner, 2014; Kaun, 2010; Meth, 2003), as is, in the case of online studies, the immediate accessibility of data without the need for transcription (Bolger et al., 2003).”
BackgroundMethodInfluential
Review of spike-based neuromorphic computing for brain-inspired vision: biology, algorithms, and hardware
Hendy, H., & Merkel, C. E. (2022) · Journal of Electronic Imaging · doi:10.1117/1.jei.31.1.010901 · Cited by 34
“76,77 The outputs of the event-based cameras are characterized by an address-event representation with four different components: ( x , y ) interpreted as the two-dimensional coordinates of the event, a timestamp ( t ), and a polarity ( p ) for the change.”
Background
Translanguaging multimodal pedagogy in French pronunciation instruction: Vis-à-vis students’ spontaneous translanguaging
Chen, X., Jian, L., & Zhu, S. (2021) · System · doi:10.1016/j.system.2021.102603 · Cited by 27
“Yes and. . ., but wait. . ., heck no!”: A socially situated cognitive approach towards understanding how startup entrepreneurs process critical feedback
Kaffka, G. A., Singaram, R., Kraaijenbrink, J., & Groen, A. J. (2021) · Journal of Small Business Management · doi:10.1080/00472778.2020.1866186 · Cited by 36
Can reflective diary-writing increase sufficiency-oriented consumption? A longitudinal intervention addressing the role of basic psychological needs, subjective well-being, and time affluencePreprint
Tröger, J., Wullenkord, M. C., Barthels, C., & Steller, R. (2020) · Sustainability · doi:10.31234/osf.io/ry8s2 · Cited by 1
Current Landscape of Ecological Momentary Assessment (Real-Time Data) Methodology in Cancer Research: A Systematic Review
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Fitting the Longitudinal Actor-Partner Interdependence Model as a Dynamic Structural Equation Model in Mplus
Savord, A., McNeish, D. M., Iida, M., Quiroz, S. I., & Ha, T. (2022) · Structural Equation Modeling: A Multidisciplinary Journal · doi:10.1080/10705511.2022.2065279 · Cited by 24
“Gathering many timepoints over a relatively short period of time allows researchers to examine the day-to-day or moment-tomoment changes and dynamics of relationships that singletimepoint snapshots or once-yearly data collection cannot (Bolger et al., 2003).”
Background
Worry and Positive Episodes in the Daily Lives of Individuals With Generalized Anxiety Disorder: An Ecological Momentary Assessment Study
Vîslă, A., Zinbarg, R. E., Hilpert, P., Allemand, M., & Flückiger, C. (2021) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2021.722881 · Cited by 27
A diary study to open up the black box of overtime work among university faculty members
Beckers, D. G., van Hooff, M. L., van der Linden, D., Kompier, M. A., Taris, T. W., & Geurts, S. A. (2008) · Scandinavian Journal of Work, Environment & Health · doi:10.5271/sjweh.1226 · Cited by 23
“It uses a diary design, as diaries allow participants to describe their precise activities and psychological reactions on a day-to-day basis and at particular times (20, 21).”
The role of rapport in satisfying one’s basic psychological needs
Baker, Z. G., Watlington, E. M., & Knee, C. R. (2020) · Motivation and Emotion · doi:10.1007/s11031-020-09819-5 · Cited by 23
"Dialing it Back:" Shadowbanning, Invisible Digital Labor, and how Marginalized Content Creators Attempt to Mitigate the Impacts of Opaque Platform Governance
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“They are a way of documenting specific experiences in a way that is not possible using traditional study designs [11].”
The role of immersive spaces on the customer experience: An exploration of fashion metaverses
Alexander, B., Blázquez, M., Chrimes, C., & Boardman, R. (2024) · Psychology and Marketing · doi:10.1002/mar.22140 · Cited by 32
Gratitude predicts well-being via resilience and social support in emerging adults: A daily diary study
Yang, K., Zhang, L., Li, W., Jia, N., & Kong, F. (2024) · The Journal of Positive Psychology · doi:10.1080/17439760.2024.2322444 · Cited by 33
“…experience and the final part of a given period (Fredrickson & Kahneman, 1993), the daily diary method is based on the events and experiences within the natural and spontaneous context, and can provide valuable insights that complement traditional research designs (Bolger et al., 2003; Reis, 1994).”
Influential
Negative role modeling in hospitality organizations: A social learning perspective on supervisor and subordinate customer-targeted incivility
Xiao, J., & Mao, J. (2022) · International Journal of Hospitality Management · doi:10.1016/j.ijhm.2022.103141 · Cited by 25
In the Eye of the Beholder: Challenge and Hindrance Appraisals of Work Characteristics and Their Implications for Employee’s Well-Being
Li, P., Peeters, M. C. W., Taris, T. W., & Zhang, Y. (2021) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2021.708309 · Cited by 28
Immersive imaginative hedonism: Daydreaming as experiential ‘consumption’
Heath, T., & Nixon, E. (2021) · Marketing Theory · doi:10.1177/14705931211004665 · Cited by 29
“, 1989), while diaries added insights into the temporal dimensions of daydreams (Bolger et al., 2003; Green et al., 2006).”
Background
Personal mental health navigator: Harnessing the power of data, personal models, and health cybernetics to promote psychological well-being
Rahmani, A. M., Lai, J., Jafarlou, S., Azimi, I., Yunusova, A., Rivera, A. P., Labbaf, S., Anzanpour, A., Dutt, N. D., Jain, R., et al. (2022) · Frontiers in Digital Health · doi:10.3389/fdgth.2022.933587 · Cited by 26
A mobile application for panic disorder and agoraphobia: Insights from a multi-methods feasibility study
Ebenfeld, L., Kleine Stegemann, S., Lehr, D., Ebert, D. D., Funk, B., Riper, H., & Berking, M. (2020) · Internet Interventions · doi:10.1016/j.invent.2019.100296 · Cited by 20
Character strength traits, states, and emotional well‐being: A daily diary study
Wagner, L., & Gander, F. (2024) · Journal of Personality · doi:10.1111/jopy.12933 · Cited by 28
“Moreover, asking about state (rather than trait) levels does not require respondents to aggregate ratings over extended periods, which can reduce susceptibility to memory biases (Bolger et al., 2003).”
ESMira: A decentralized open-source application for collecting experience sampling data
Lewetz, D., & Stieger, S. (2023) · Behavior Research Methods · doi:10.3758/s13428-023-02194-2 · Cited by 22
An event‐based approach to psychological contracts: The importance of examining everyday broken and fulfilled promises as discrete events
Kiefer, T., Barclay, L. J., Conway, N., & Briner, R. B. (2022) · Journal of Organizational Behavior · doi:10.1002/job.2656 · Cited by 32
“By using an event-sampling approach, we reduced retrospection biases by capturing broken and fulfilled promises as they occurred (e.g., Bolger et al., 2003; Ohly et al., 2010; Robinson & Clore, 2002).”
Method
Emotional Self-Regulation in Everyday Life: A Systematic Review
Alarcón-Espinoza, M., Sanduvete-Chaves, S., Anguera, M., García, P. S., & Chacón-Moscoso, S. (2022) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2022.884756 · Cited by 22
Capturing emotion coherence in daily life: Using ambulatory physiology measures and ecological momentary assessments to examine within-person associations and individual differences
Doren, N. V., Dickens, C. N., Benson, L., Brick, T. R., Gatzke‐Kopp, L. M., & Oravecz, Z. (2021) · Biological Psychology · doi:10.1016/j.biopsycho.2021.108074 · Cited by 28
Anger precedes and predicts nonsuicidal self-injury in veterans: Findings from an ecological momentary assessment study
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“One way to better understand risk for NSSI is through ecological momentary assessment (EMA) studies, which allow researchers to gather data in real-time on emotions, cognitions, and behaviors occurring in participants’ natural environments (Bolger et al., 2003).”
Background
Why Do People Sometimes Wear an Anonymous Mask? Motivations for Seeking Anonymity Online
Nitschinsk, L., Tobin, S. J., Varley, D., & Vanman, E. J. (2025) · Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin · doi:10.1177/01461672231210465 · Cited by 22
“The benefits of conducting a diary study are that it shortens the interval between the questions and events of interest, thus reducing recall errors, and it uniquely captures human phenomenology (Bolger et al., 2003; Ernala et al., 2020).”
The process of solving problems with self-service technologies: a study from the user’s perspective
Nili, A., Tate, M., & Johnstone, D. (2019) · Electronic Commerce Research · doi:10.1007/s10660-018-9304-0 · Cited by 21
Childhood emotional but not physical or sexual maltreatment predicts prosocial behavior in late adolescence: A daily diary study.
Kong, F., Zhu, N.-Z., Ye, Y., Li, C., Zhang, L.-T., & Li, W.-J. (2023) · International Journal of Child Abuse & Neglect · doi:10.1016/j.chiabu.2023.106123 · Cited by 21
Interdependencies between family and friends in daily life: Personality differences and associations with affective well-being across the lifespan
Buijs, V. L., Jeronimus, B. F., Lodder, G. M. A., Riediger, M., Luong, G., & Wrzus, C. (2022) · European Journal of Personality · doi:10.1177/08902070211072745 · Cited by 21
“To understand whether the frequency of contact with family is related to the frequency of contact with friends, assessment methods with little recall bias are needed, such as experience sampling methods (ESM, Bolger et al., 2003).”
Method
Strengthening Individual Teacher-Child Relationships: An Intervention Study Among Student Teachers in Special Education
Koenen, A.-K., Borremans, L. F. N., Vroey, A. D., Kelchtermans, G., & Spilt, J. L. (2021) · Frontiers in Education · doi:10.3389/feduc.2021.769573 · Cited by 35
“Outcome Variables On each internship day of the pre- and post-intervention phase, a link to the online questionnaire (Limesurvey) was sent via e-mail to collect the teachers’ reports of emotions and relationship perceptions (Bolger et al., 2003).”
Method
Predicting compulsive buying from pathological personality traits, stressors, and purchasing behavior
Harnish, R. J., Roche, M. J., & Bridges, K. (2021) · Personality and Individual Differences · doi:10.1016/j.paid.2021.110821 · Cited by 21
Whiteness, Anti-Blackness, and Trauma: A Grounded Theory of White Racial Meaning Making
Whitehead, M. A. (2021) · Journal of College Student Development · doi:10.1353/csd.2021.0027 · Cited by 21
“During Phase 1, participants were asked to submit over the course of a month eight diary entries (Bolger et al., 2003) that captured interactions and observations related to race, their emotional responses to these events, their thoughts about why they experienced these emotional responses, and with whom they spoke ab…”
Background
Daily Stressor-Related Negative Mood and its Associations with Flourishing and Daily Curiosity
Drake, A., Doré, B., Falk, E. B., Zurn, P., Bassett, D. S., & Lydon‐Staley, D. M. (2021) · Journal of Happiness Studies · doi:10.1007/s10902-021-00404-2 · Cited by 27
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Factors that influence the use of electronic diaries in health care: scoping review
Daniëls, N. E. M., Hochstenbach, L. M. J., van Zelst, C., van Bokhoven, M. A., Delespaul, P. A. E. G., & Beurskens, A. J. H. M. (2021) · JMIR mhealth and uhealth · doi:10.2196/19536 · Cited by 20
Good and bad days at work: A descriptive review of day‐level and experience‐sampling studies
Sonnentag, S., Völker, J., & Wehrt, W. (2024) · Journal of Organizational Behavior · doi:10.1002/job.2796 · Cited by 26
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da Costa, N., & Rose, H. (2024) · System (Linköping) · doi:10.1016/j.system.2024.103263 · Cited by 20
The relation between childhood maltreatment and hedonic and eudaimonic well-being in emerging adults: A daily diary study
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Adolescent sleep, distress, and technology use: weekday versus weekend
Reardon, A., Lushington, K., & Agostini, A. (2022) · Child and Adolescent Mental Health · doi:10.1111/camh.12616 · Cited by 20
Beyond a mediocre customer experience in the circular economy: The satisfaction of contributing to the ecological transition
Guyader, H., Ponsignon, F., Salignac, F., & Bojovic, N. (2022) · Journal of Cleaner Production · doi:10.1016/j.jclepro.2022.134495 · Cited by 20
“These data provide a longitudinal view of the customer experience as it was lived (Bolger et al., 2003) and illuminate how perceptions and judgments about it changed or not over time (Patterson, 2005).”
Background
Capturing Hassles and Uplifts in Adolescents’ Daily Lives: Links with Physical and Mental Well-Being
Zheng, H., Cooke, E. M., Li, K.-H., & Zheng, Y. (2022) · Journal of Youth and Adolescence · doi:10.1007/s10964-022-01682-6 · Cited by 20
“Accordingly, studies have begun to employ daily diary designs or ecological momentary assessment to capture daily experiences in real life and to investigate their associations with well-being at the daily level (Bolger et al., 2003; Larson & Csikszentmihalyi, 2014).”
Background
Taking stock of the longitudinal study of romantic couple relationships: The last 20 years
Galovan, A. M., Orbuch, T. L., Shrout, M. R., Drebit, E., & Rice, T. M. (2022) · Personal Relationships · doi:10.1111/pere.12452 · Cited by 28
The Emotional Toll of the COVID-19 Crisis on Local Government Workers
Barboza-Wilkes, C. J., Gonzalez, E., Resh, W. G., & Wong, S. (2022) · Review of Public Personnel Administration · doi:10.1177/0734371x221108501 · Cited by 31
“Additionally, we know little about the effect of diary completion itself on participants’ experience or responses, but Bolger et al. (2003) note reactance, habituation, increased complexity, and gradual entrainment should all be explored.”
BackgroundInfluential
Capturing life as it is truly lived? Improving diary data in educational research
Arndt, H. L., & Rose, H. (2022) · International Journal of Research & Method in Education · doi:10.1080/1743727x.2022.2094360 · Cited by 20
“First, as noted by Bolger et al. (2003), a major challenge in event-contingent diary designs is that participants may find it difficult to identify each relevant event.”
BackgroundMethodInfluential

Authors: Bolger, N., Davis, A., & Rafaeli, E.
Affiliations: New York University (US)
ORCID: Bolger, Niall
Rafaeli, Eshkol
Venue: Annual Review of Psychology
Publisher: Annual Reviews
Published: 2003-02
Volume: 54
Issue: 1
Pages: 579-616
ISSN: 0066-4308 (ISSN-L)
1545-2085
DOI: 10.1146/annurev.psych.54.101601.145030
OpenAlex: W2166190112
Cited by: 3,843
References: 0
Citations by year: 2026: 210 · 2025: 205 · 2024: 203 · 2023: 161 · 2022: 212 · 2021: 257 · 2020: 282 · 2019: 207 · 2018: 204 · 2017: 214 · 2016: 177 · 2015: 215 · 2014: 180 · 2013: 206 · 2012: 195
FWCI: 5.68
Type: journal article
Language: en
Open access: closed
Locations: Annual Review of Psychology (publishedVersion)
PubMed (publishedVersion)
Funders: National Institute of Mental Health (R01MH060366)
Topics: Social Sciences › Psychology › Experimental and Cognitive Psychology › Mental Health Research Topics
Social Sciences › Decision Sciences › Management Science and Operations Research › Psychometric Methodologies and Testing
Social Sciences › Psychology › Social Psychology › Attachment and Relationship Dynamics
Keywords: diary method, everyday experience, within-person variability, ambulatory heart rate, multilevel models, within-person change, interpersonal processes, life transitions, data collection technology
MeSH terms: Data Collection, Humans, Individuality, Life Change Events, Medical Records, Personality Assessment, Software, User-Computer Interface, Writing

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Diary Methods: Capturing Life as it is Lived

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