Mixing Metaphors: Translating the Indian Medical Doctrine Tridoa in Chinese Buddhist Sources

May combine two claims.

While a minority of translators favored closer fidelity to Sanskrit originals, most rendered the tridoṣa with terms that carried indigenous metaphorical connotations, thereby stressing compatibility between Indian and Chinese medical thought.

“While some translators prioritised closer fidelity to Sanskrit originals, most chose to emphasise the compatibility between Indian and Chinese medical thought by glossing the tridoṣ a with terms that were loaded with indigenous metaphorical connotations.”

• AssumptionRests on an assumption: The table's sample of translation terms is large and diverse enough to support general observations about the translation corpus.

May combine two claims.

Most Chinese Buddhist texts focus on the Elements themselves, but a significant portion hold that imbalanced Elements manifest as Wind, Bile, and Phlegm.

“Though most Chinese Buddhist texts focus on the Elements themselves, a significant percentage hold that imbalanced Elements will manifest as Wind (Skt./Pālivāta), Bile (Skt./Pālipitta), and Phlegm (Skt.śleṣ man or kapha; Pāli semha).”

• AssumptionRests on an assumption: The table's sample of translation terms is large and diverse enough to support general observations about the translation corpus.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Texts that recognize the fourth affliction as a major cause of disease conventionally state that there are 404 ailments, 101 caused by each of the three doṣa and 101 by their combination.

“Texts that recognise this fourth affliction as a major cause of disease conventionally state that there are 404 ailments that plague humanity, 101 caused by each of the three doṣ a and 101 by their combination.”

May combine two claims.

The Wind defect is consistently translated with feng 風, while the other two terms vary more widely, apparently confusing or conflating disease agents, categories, anatomical structures, and physiological substances.

“Though the translation of the Wind defect consistently involves the Chinese character feng 風, also meaning 'wind', the options utilised by translators for the other two terms range further afield, apparently confusing or conflating agents of disease, disease categories, anatomical structures, and physiological substances.”

Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

Between the poles of unhewn and refined translation, three basic tactics were available for any foreign term.

“Between the poles of unhewn and refined translation, there were three basic tactics available to deal with any given foreign term.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

The balance of Elements can be managed and the arising of the doṣa avoided through proper diet and regimen and through therapeutic meditations such as the Four Element absorption meditations.

“The balance of Elements can instead be managed and the arising of the doṣ a avoided altogether through maintaining proper diet and regimen, as well as through therapeutic meditations such as the Four Element 'absorption meditations' (Sk./Pāli samādhi; Ch. sanmei 三昧).”

May combine two claims.

The table shows stability in translating the Wind doṣa but variability in translating the other two over time.

“The first thing about this table that commands our attention is the stability of the translation of the Wind doṣ a versus the variability of the other two over time.”

• AssumptionRests on an assumption: The table's sample of translation terms is large and diverse enough to support general observations about the translation corpus.

May combine two claims.

Although there is no consensus on antidotes for each doṣa, the items mentioned are most often drawn from the five basic medicines listed in monastic disciplinary codes: ghee, butter, oil, honey, and sugar.

“While there is no consensus from text to text on what the antidotes are for each doṣ a, the items mentioned are most often drawn from the five basic medicines listed in the monastic disciplinary codes: ghee, butter, oil, honey, and sugar.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based). May combine two claims.

The major translators of the medieval period were well aware of the challenges of translation equivalence, continually reflecting on the issue and discussing their methods and goals.

“In fact, we know that the major translators of the medieval period were well cognizant of the challenges of translation equivalence, as they continually reflected upon this issue and discussed their methods and goals.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Debates between translators hinged on the tension between 'unhewn' (zhi 質) and 'refined' (wen 文) translation tactics.

“Generally speaking, debates between translators hinged on the tension between what were known as 'unhewn' (zhi 質) and 'refined' (wen 文) translation tactics.18”

• cites Cheung 2006, pp.10-3Not checked — no full text of the source

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Another therapy for the doṣa is the administration of foods, drinks, and medicines with particular qualities of taste.

“Another therapy for the doṣ a is the administration of foods, drinks, and medicines with particular qualities of taste.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

A second tactic was rendering an Indian term with a semantically precise translation.

“Secondly, the translator could render an Indian term with a semantically precise translation.”

May combine two claims. The quote only partly states this claim.

Important medical doctrines are therefore treated unevenly in the Chinese Tripitaka, with different translators using divergent Chinese characters.

“with different translators using divergent Chinese characters.”

May combine two claims.

Using feng or fengbing was seen as a favorable solution for the Wind doṣa, while translators were more flexible for the other two, especially Phlegm.

“Using feng 風 (Wind) or fengbing 風病 (Wind defect) clearly was seen as a favorable solution for dealing with this one doṣ a, while translators appear to have been much more flexible in their translation choices for the other two, especially for Phlegm.”

• AssumptionRests on an assumption: The table's sample of translation terms is large and diverse enough to support general observations about the translation corpus.

May combine two claims.

Chinese texts most commonly refer to Wind, Bile, and Phlegm as bing 病, a character meaning both illness and defect, which captures the core meanings of Sanskrit doṣa.

“Chinese texts most commonly refer to Wind, Bile, and Phlegm as bing 病, a character that means both 'illness' and 'defect', thus capturing the core meanings of the Sanskrit word doṣ a.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

Within Mahāyāna, even these measures are temporary expedients, because ultimate prevention and cure of all illnesses comes with realizing the Emptiness of the physical body and the illusory nature of disease.

“Within the Mahāyāna tradition, however, even these measures are temporary expedients, as the ultimate prevention and cure of all illnesses comes with the realization of the Emptiness of the physical body and the illusory nature of disease.”

Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

The Buddha indicates that these illnesses are easily cured with common foodstuffs.

“He goes on to suggest that these maladies are easily cured with commonly available foodstuffs.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable).

The Chinese passage packs too many layers of meaning into its few characters to be rendered succinctly.

“My point is not that this is a stylistically superior (or even desirable) translation of the lines in question, but rather simply that the Chinese passage has too many layers of meaning packed into its few characters to be expressed succinctly.”

Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

The Buddha's statement offers a simple three-part classification of physical illnesses.

“The Buddha's statement to the monks presents a simple three-part typology of physical ailments.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable).

Perfect one-to-one equivalence between verbal expressions in different languages is a logical abstraction.

“Translation theorists have long understood that perfect one-to-one equivalence between verbal expressions in different languages is a logical abstraction.16”

• cites Jakobson 2004, p. 139Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

May combine two claims.

In the Ayurvedic medical corpus composed in later centuries, mostly in northern India, the three are eventually called doṣa and given a preeminent role in etiology.

“Nevertheless, in the Ayurvedic medical corpus composed in subsequent centuries, mostly in northern India, the three are eventually called doṣ a and are given a preeminent role in etiology.”

• cites Scharfe 1999 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

Most translation scholars, if they allow any equivalence, insist that equivalence is not inherent in languages but is produced by a translator's active negotiation and compromise between two systems of meaning.

“Most scholars of translation, if they acknowledge any possibility of equivalence at all, insist that it is not something inherent in the languages, but the product of an individual translator's active negotiation and compromise between two different systems of meaning.”

• cites Even-Zohar 2004, 1990, 1997Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

• cites Lefevere 1992Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

• cites Toury 1995 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

Most translation scholars understand this negotiation as inseparable from the specific social context and historical moment in which translation occurs.

“Moreover, they understand this process of negotiation to be inseparable from the specific social context and concrete historical moment in which the translational acts take place.17”

• cites Even-Zohar 2004, 1990, 1997Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

• cites Lefevere 1992Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

• cites Toury 1995 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

May combine two claims.

In Pāli sources written in first-century BCE Sri Lanka, Wind, Bile, and Phlegm appear among other pathological factors but are not explicitly called doṣa.

“in the Pāli sources written in first century BCE Sri Lanka, they are not explicitly identified in these texts as doṣ a (Pāli dosa).”

• cites Scharfe 1999 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

May combine two claims.

Terms such as zhou and shenzhou were already infused with connotations from indigenous Chinese spirit-world experience, so they can be understood as metaphorical equivalents.

“As these terms were already infused with connotations derived from the indigenous Chinese experience of the spirit-world, they can be understood as 'metaphorical equivalents'.25”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

The Six Flavors from Ayurvedic tradition are Sweet, Sour, Salty, Astringent, Bitter, and Pungent, though Buddhist sources often differ in number and qualities.

“The Six Flavors (Skt.ṣ aḍ rasa; Ch. liuwei 六味) from the Ayurvedic tradition are Sweet, Sour, Salty, Astringent, Bitter, and Pungent, although Buddhist sources often differ in terms of the number of Flavors as well as the qualities of taste themselves.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

The Indian understanding of the three defects developed in religious and medical texts from the last few centuries BCE through the first millennium CE.

“The Indian understanding of these three defects developed in religious and medical texts from the last few centuries BCE through the first millennium CE. 7”

• cites Scharfe 1999 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based).

Translators of Chinese Buddhism were not haphazard in their work.

“This type of analysis begins with the premise that translators of Chinese Buddhism were not haphazard in their work.”

May combine two claims.

The Chinese term feng was a successful translation for the Wind defect because it was both semantically precise and a powerful metaphorical equivalent drawing on Chinese medicine and demonology, where feng had long been considered a major cause of disease.

“I argue that the Chinese term feng was such a successful translation for the Wind defect because it was both a semantically precise way to render the foreign word, as well as a powerful metaphorical equivalent that tapped into a wealth of resonances from Chinese medicine and demonology, where feng had long been considered among the major causes of disease.28”

• AssumptionRests on an assumption: The table's sample of translation terms is large and diverse enough to support general observations about the translation corpus.

May combine two claims.

Examining those factors is essential for understanding why Buddhist texts cite medical terms and can show that translators' handling of medical terms was shaped by social concerns beyond presenting Indian doctrine.

“In fact, analysis of these factors is vital to understanding why Buddhist texts are invoking medical terms in the first place, and can help us to recognize that how translators approached medical terms was influenced by a variety of social concerns beyond simply the portrayal of Indian doctrine.”

The quote only partly states this claim.

Despite fluctuations, the overarching strategy seems to have been to use Chinese characters capturing the heat associated with Indian Bile and the cold associated with Phlegm.

“heat associated with the Indian understanding of the Bile defect and those of cold associated with Phlegm.”

• AssumptionRests on an assumption: The table's sample of translation terms is large and diverse enough to support general observations about the translation corpus.
• AssumptionRests on an assumption: The putative dates assigned to the translations in the table are reliable enough for chronological analysis of translation norms.

May combine two claims.

The translators balanced their tactics by suggesting continuity with indigenous Chinese medicine while also marking difference from it.

“Thus they walked a fine line, creatively using translation tactics to suggest continuities while also asserting difference with indigenous Chinese medical views.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable).

It is unnecessary to choose exclusively between Indian and Chinese medical readings of the passage.

“However, the either-or decision he presents us between Indian or Chinese medical readings of the passage is not necessary.”

May combine two claims.

Cold, whether written han or leng, was associated with Yin in classical medicine, as was Water, which several translators used to gloss the Phlegm defect.

“Cold, whether written han 寒 or leng 冷, was associated with Yin in classical medicine, as was Water (shui 水), which several translators called upon to gloss the Phlegm defect.33”

• cites Huangdi neijing suwen 33 (Long and Long 2006, p. 450)Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

• AssumptionRests on an assumption: The table's sample of translation terms is large and diverse enough to support general observations about the translation corpus.

May combine two claims.

The Buddha's statement is meant to cover every disease without exception in order to make a broader doctrinal point.

“A reading of the lines immediately following the passage just quoted reveals that the Buddha's statement is simply intended to encompass any and all diseases, bar none, in order to make a larger doctrinal point:”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based). The quote only partly states this claim.

The lost Sanskrit source behind An Shigao's passage probably contained the three doshas vāta, pitta, and śleṣman.

“In this world there are three doṣ a that exist within every person's body.What are these three?The first is vāta; the second is pitta; the third is śleṣ man.”

• cites Unschuld 2010Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

• AssumptionRests on an assumption: The original Sanskrit source behind An Shigao's passage contained the three doshas vāta, pitta, and śleṣman.

Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

The context shows that the Buddha's statement is not chiefly an exposition of Indian medical doctrine.

“When we read the context in which the three defects are introduced in the text, it becomes clear that the main point of the Buddha's statement is not to expound on Indian medical doctrine.”

May combine two claims.

Translations for Bile involving the color yellow may refer to the hue of the biological substance itself, but the color had associations in Chinese medicine with yellowing of the skin caused by Heat and Yang.

“While perhaps the translations for Bile involving the color yellowsuch as Yellow (huang 黄), Yellow Fluid (huangshui 黄水), Yellow Illness (huangbing 黄病), Yellow Heat (huangre 黄熱), and Yellow Heat Illness (huangre 黄熱病)-may be referring to the hue of the biological substance itself, the color had associations in Chinese medicine with the yellowing of the skin as a result of Heat and Yang.32”

• AssumptionRests on an assumption: The table's sample of translation terms is large and diverse enough to support general observations about the translation corpus.

Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

Unschuld rightly noted that the Chinese translation of the passage is potentially ambiguous.

“Unschuld is correct in drawing attention to the potential ambiguity of this passage in Chinese translation.”

• cites Unschuld 2010Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

May combine two claims.

Saliva was the combination of Drool originating in the Spleen and Spittle originating in the Kidneys, both also counted among the Yin viscera.

“Likewise, Saliva was the combination of Drool (xian 涎) originating in the Spleen and Spittle (tuo 唾) originating in the Kidneys-both also counted among the Yin viscera.35”

• cites Huangdi neijing suwen 23 (Long and Long 2006, p. 340)Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

• AssumptionRests on an assumption: The table's sample of translation terms is large and diverse enough to support general observations about the translation corpus.

Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

Toury stated that translations are facts of target cultures.

“Gideon Toury, in a pithy summation of this approach, has written that 'translations are facts of target cultures'.”

• cites TouryNot matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

In recent decades, translation theorists have mostly stopped judging translations as accurate or inaccurate and have focused instead on the social and cultural contexts in which equivalence is used.

“In recent decades, translation theorists have largely turned away from judging the accuracy or inaccuracy of translations (however such criteria may be conceived), and have instead concentrated on analyzing the social and cultural contexts in which certain types of equivalence are employed.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable).

Treating translation as choices made by historical actors for strategic reasons increases appreciation of translators' agency and the performative character of their work in particular times and places.

“By approaching translation as a series of choices made by historical actors for a variety of strategic reasons, we gain a greater appreciation for the agency of translators and for the performative nature of their work in specific times and places.”

Classified as probably not a substantial claim. May combine two claims.

The passage argues that the knowledge needed to relieve humanity's deepest suffering easily and effectively lies in basic Buddhist methods, not in those of other contemporary religious or medical groups.

“Thus, at its very essence, the passage is arguing that the knowledge to effectively and easily alleviating all of humanity's ultimate sources of suffering are to be found in basic Buddhist approaches-as opposed to those associated with any other contemporary religious or medical group.”

• AssumptionRests on an assumption: The intended Chinese reader of the passage was familiar with both Buddhist and Chinese medical thinking and would immediately recognize the three antidotes as Buddhist practices.

May combine two claims.

Besides making Indian medical doctrines accessible, the passage asserts superiority over rival groups competing for patronage in the religiomedical marketplace.

“In addition to making Indian medical doctrines accessible to a new audience, the passage also stakes a claim of superiority over other groups competing for patronage in the religiomedical marketplace.”

Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

The three remedies for mental and spiritual defects that the Buddha names are clearly Buddhist practices.

“What goes without saying in the text, but which would be immediately apprehended by the intended reader, is that the three antidotes for mental and spiritual defects mentioned by the Buddha (meditations to overcome self-identification with the body, compassionate deeds of meritmaking, and contemplation of karmic causes and effects) are patently Buddhist practices.”

• AssumptionRests on an assumption: The intended Chinese reader of the passage was familiar with both Buddhist and Chinese medical thinking and would immediately recognize the three antidotes as Buddhist practices.

Classified as probably not a substantial claim. May combine two claims.

The translation terms may obscure distinctions in Indian and Chinese physiology, nosology, and etiology that learned physicians would care about, but the text serves purposes other than medical precision.

“Although the chosen translation terms may blur distinctions between Indian and Chinese physiology, nosology, and etiology of interest to learned physicians, this text has other work to do than medical sophistry.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable).

Attention to the combined use of indigenous and foreign metaphors, the multiple meanings of Chinese characters, and the larger strategies behind translation choices is essential for understanding the social and cultural factors in producing and receiving Buddhist texts.

“Attention to the simultaneous mobilization of indigenous and foreign metaphors, the multivalency of Chinese characters, and the larger strategies behind individual translation decisions are critical to fully understanding the complicated social and cultural factors and considerations that went into the production and reception of Buddhist texts.”

May combine two claims.

Reading a Buddhist translation alongside an analysis of translation tactics across the corpus can show that a seemingly erroneous passage uses bicultural metaphorical wordplay to explain a foreign medical doctrine accessibly and to highlight Buddhism's superior efficacy in relieving suffering.

“Here, I have explored one example of how reading a Buddhist translation against an analysis of translation tactics in the corpus as a whole can reveal that a seemingly 'erroneous' passage in fact is engaging in bicultural metaphorical wordplay in order to explain a foreign medical doctrine in an accessible way, while also drawing attention to Buddhism's superior efficacy in relieving suffering.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable).

Studying the wider cultural and social contexts of transmitting and receiving foreign knowledge requires scholars to go beyond judging how closely target terminology fits source terminology.

“Exploration of the wider cultural and social contexts in which the transmission and reception of foreign knowledge takes place requires that scholarly analysis move beyond how close the 'fit' is between the source and target terminology.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based).

Correctly understanding the Buddha's statement depends on recognizing that his mention of the tridoṣa is meant to include all human diseases.

“Understanding the meaning of the Buddha's statement correctly hinges on knowing that, when he mentions the tridoṣ a in this text, his words are in fact meant to encompass any and all human diseases, because it is only in this way that he can be making the broadest claim for the efficacy of Buddhist practice in curing all mental and spiritual defects.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable). May combine two claims.

Examining how and why the translator mixed metaphors reveals both the intended ultimate meaning of the text and the translator's creativity.

“Rather than focusing on the inaccuracy of the translation, investigating how and why the translator mixed his metaphors reveals both the ultimate meaning the text was intended to convey and the creativity of the individual involved in producing this translation.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable).

The cultural and social logic of the translation terms, rather than their medical logic, deserves the closest attention.

“In the final analysis, it is these cultural and social logics of the translation terms, and not their medical logic, that demand our closest attention.”

Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

The translator apparently judged that linking the three defects to the indigenous categories Wind, Heat, and Cold would help Chinese readers grasp the passage's sense of completeness and inclusiveness.

“The translator apparently decided that establishing metaphorical connections to the three indigenous categories of Wind, Heat, and Cold was advantageous for making this sense of completeness and inclusivity comprehensible to a Chinese reader.”