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Levels and predictors of anxiety, depression and health anxiety during COVID-19 pandemic in Turkish society: The importance of gender
Open accessAbstract
Background: The COVID-19 pandemic is having negative effects on societies’ mental health. Both the pandemic and the measures taken to combat it can affect individuals’ mental health. Aims: The purpose of this study was to evaluate the levels of depression, anxiety and health anxiety in Turkish society during the COVID-19 pandemic, and to examine the factors affecting these. Method: The study was performed using an online questionnaire. Participants were asked to complete a sociodemographic data form, the Hospital Anxiety and Depression Scale (HADS) and the Health Anxiety Inventory (HAI). The effects on depression, anxiety and health anxiety levels of factors such as age, sex, marital status, living with an individual aged above 60, the presence of a new Coronavirus+ patient among friends or relatives, previous and current psychiatric illness and presence of accompanying chronic disease were then investigated. Results: In terms of HADS cut-off points, 23.6% ( n = 81) of the population scored above the depression cut-off point, and 45.1% ( n = 155) scored above the cut-off point for anxiety. In regression analysis, female gender, living in urban areas and previous psychiatric illness history were found as risk factors for anxiety; living in urban areas was found as risk factor for depression; and female gender, accompanying chronic disease and previous psychiatric history were found as risk factors for health anxiety. Conclusion: The results of this cross-sectional study suggest that the groups most psychologically affected by the COVID-19 pandemic are women, individuals with previous psychiatric illness, individuals living in urban areas and those with an accompanying chronic disease. Priority might therefore be attached to these in future psychiatric planning.
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“Current medical disease (including psychiatric disorders and substance abuse) (Zhang et al., 2020b, Wang et al., 2020a, Ozdin and Bayrak Ozdin, 2020), and a past medical history (including psychiatric history and substance abuse) (Wang et al., 2020a, Mazza et al., 2020, Li et al., 2020c, Ozdin and Bayrak Ozdin, 2020) were associated with/increased the risk of depression and/or anxiety.”
From COVID-19 pandemic and mental health consequences: Systematic review of the current evidence (2020) · cites this paper as Ozdin and Bayrak Ozdin, 2020
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“Furthermore, mental health issues including depression, stress, anxiety (3-8), fear (9-11), physical isolation and feeling alone (12), behavioral issues (4,13), possible posttraumatic stress disorders (3), and burnout (14) can affect large numbers of individuals if these issues are not well addressed.”
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“This finding differs from previous studies which found females to be more prone to feeling anxious (Ebrahim et al., 2020; Liu N. et al., 2020; Özdin and Bayrak Özdin, 2020) and depressed (Özdin and Bayrak Özdin, 2020) during COVID-19.”
From Knowledge of COVID-19 and Its Influence on Mindfulness, Cognitive Emotion Regulation and Psychological Flexibility in the Indian Community (2020) · cites this paper as Özdin and Bayrak Özdin, 2020
In the citing paper
“women experienced higher prevalence rates of anxiety, depressive, and eating pathology symptoms even prior to the pandemic”
From Prevalence rates of anxiety, depressive, and eating pathology symptoms between the pre- and peri-COVID-19 eras: A meta-analysis (2022) · cites this paper as Özdin and Bayrak Özdin, 2020
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“This contrasts with previous studies from Turkey conducted in April 2020 [24], from Spain conducted in March 2020 [25] and from Italy conducted in March 2020 [26], which all reported that chronic disease was associated with higher levels of psychological distress.”
From Worry and mental health in the Covid-19 pandemic: vulnerability factors in the general Norwegian population (2021) · cites this paper as [24]
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Underrated Diagnosis: Prenatal Depression
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“3 In addition, a cited risk factor for mental disorders is a lower socioeconomic status and lack of psycho-emotional support [Du, Wang, Yin, et al. 2020; Özdin and Özdin 2020; Li, Qin, Sun, et al. 2020; Lei, Huang, Zhang, et al. 2020; Zhou, Zhang, Wang, et al. 2020].”
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“Women tend to experience a greater occurrence of depression and anxiety symptoms, including difficulties with sleep and low self-esteem, in comparison to men (14).”
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“These fi ndings are echoed in a cross-sectional study by Özdin and Bayrak Özdin (2020), highlighting the severe psychological impact and higher stress levels in the Turkish population during the pandemic.”
BackgroundResilience of young adults in Korea: Navigating the impact of collective trauma and anxiety
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“For example, there have been several explanations for higher resilience among males (Kobayashi et al., 2019; Ozdin & Bayrak Ozdin, 2020; Rodriguez-Llanes et al., 2013).”
Psychological distress and the COVID-19 pandemic: the role of personality and coping strategies
Simões, S. C. C., Marquès, L., de Andrade, D. A. F. S., Henriques, S., Paraíso, L., & Espírito‐Santo, H. (2024) · Cadernos de Saúde Pública · doi:10.1590/0102-311xen096123 · Cited by 1
“Risk factors for psychological distress included being women, younger age, having a low socioeconomic or educational status, having a higher risk of contracting the disease, being under social isolation, and being a health worker, especially frontline 8,9,10,11,12,13,14,15,16,17,18 .”
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Aydoğan, Z., Can, M., Söylemez, E., Karakoç, K., Büyükatalay, Z. Ç., & Tokgöz-Yılmaz, S. (2025) · Brain and Behavior · doi:10.1002/brb3.70317 · Cited by 1
“In turn, much of society was affected by problems, including anxiety, stress, and psychological disorders related to the pandemic (Özdin and Özdin 2020; Kose et al. 2022).”
Metadata
- Authors
- Özdin, S., & Bayrak Özdin, Ş.
- Affiliations
- Ondokuz Mayıs University (TR)
- Rasathane Family Health Center, Samsun, Turkey
- Corresponding author
- Özdin, Selçuk
- ORCID
- Özdin, Selçuk
- Venue
- International Journal of Social Psychiatry
- Publisher
- SAGE Publications
- Published
- 2020-05-08
- Volume
- 66
- Issue
- 5
- Pages
- 504-511
- ISSN
- 0020-7640 (ISSN-L)
- 1741-2854
- PMC
- PMC7405629
- OpenAlex
- W3023698214
- Cited by
- 1,405
- References
- 30
- Citations by year
- 2026: 20 · 2025: 67 · 2024: 120 · 2023: 214 · 2022: 397 · 2021: 447 · 2020: 140
- FWCI
- 119.67
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- hybrid
- doi.org
- Locations
- International Journal of Social Psychiatry (publishedVersion, cc-by)
- PubMed Central (publishedVersion, cc-by)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- RePEc: Research Papers in Economics (submittedVersion)
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Clinical Psychology › COVID-19 and Mental Health
- Health Sciences › Medicine › Public Health, Environmental and Occupational Health › Maternal Mental Health During Pregnancy and Postpartum
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Experimental and Cognitive Psychology › Anxiety, Depression, Psychometrics, Treatment, Cognitive Processes
- Keywords
- COVID-19 pandemic, anxiety, depression, health anxiety, gender differences, risk factors, psychiatric history, chronic disease, urban residence, Turkish population, mental health
- MeSH terms
- Betacoronavirus, COVID-19, SARS-CoV-2, Anxiety, Attitude to Health, Mental Disorders, Cross-Sectional Studies, Depression, Female, Humans, Male, Mental Health, Middle Aged, Pneumonia, Viral, Surveys and Questionnaires, Risk Factors, Self-Assessment, Sex Factors, Socioeconomic Factors, Turkey, Urban Population, Comorbidity, Causality, Coronavirus Infections, Pandemics
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