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Levels and predictors of anxiety, depression and health anxiety during COVID-19 pandemic in Turkish society: The importance of gender
Open accessAbstract
Background: The COVID-19 pandemic is having negative effects on societies’ mental health. Both the pandemic and the measures taken to combat it can affect individuals’ mental health. Aims: The purpose of this study was to evaluate the levels of depression, anxiety and health anxiety in Turkish society during the COVID-19 pandemic, and to examine the factors affecting these. Method: The study was performed using an online questionnaire. Participants were asked to complete a sociodemographic data form, the Hospital Anxiety and Depression Scale (HADS) and the Health Anxiety Inventory (HAI). The effects on depression, anxiety and health anxiety levels of factors such as age, sex, marital status, living with an individual aged above 60, the presence of a new Coronavirus+ patient among friends or relatives, previous and current psychiatric illness and presence of accompanying chronic disease were then investigated. Results: In terms of HADS cut-off points, 23.6% ( n = 81) of the population scored above the depression cut-off point, and 45.1% ( n = 155) scored above the cut-off point for anxiety. In regression analysis, female gender, living in urban areas and previous psychiatric illness history were found as risk factors for anxiety; living in urban areas was found as risk factor for depression; and female gender, accompanying chronic disease and previous psychiatric history were found as risk factors for health anxiety. Conclusion: The results of this cross-sectional study suggest that the groups most psychologically affected by the COVID-19 pandemic are women, individuals with previous psychiatric illness, individuals living in urban areas and those with an accompanying chronic disease. Priority might therefore be attached to these in future psychiatric planning.
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“Current medical disease (including psychiatric disorders and substance abuse) (Zhang et al., 2020b, Wang et al., 2020a, Ozdin and Bayrak Ozdin, 2020), and a past medical history (including psychiatric history and substance abuse) (Wang et al., 2020a, Mazza et al., 2020, Li et al., 2020c, Ozdin and Bayrak Ozdin, 2020) were associated with/increased the risk of depression and/or anxiety.”
From COVID-19 pandemic and mental health consequences: Systematic review of the current evidence (2020) · cites this paper as Ozdin and Bayrak Ozdin, 2020
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“Furthermore, mental health issues including depression, stress, anxiety (3-8), fear (9-11), physical isolation and feeling alone (12), behavioral issues (4,13), possible posttraumatic stress disorders (3), and burnout (14) can affect large numbers of individuals if these issues are not well addressed.”
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“This finding differs from previous studies which found females to be more prone to feeling anxious (Ebrahim et al., 2020; Liu N. et al., 2020; Özdin and Bayrak Özdin, 2020) and depressed (Özdin and Bayrak Özdin, 2020) during COVID-19.”
From Knowledge of COVID-19 and Its Influence on Mindfulness, Cognitive Emotion Regulation and Psychological Flexibility in the Indian Community (2020) · cites this paper as Özdin and Bayrak Özdin, 2020
In the citing paper
“women experienced higher prevalence rates of anxiety, depressive, and eating pathology symptoms even prior to the pandemic”
From Prevalence rates of anxiety, depressive, and eating pathology symptoms between the pre- and peri-COVID-19 eras: A meta-analysis (2022) · cites this paper as Özdin and Bayrak Özdin, 2020
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“This contrasts with previous studies from Turkey conducted in April 2020 [24], from Spain conducted in March 2020 [25] and from Italy conducted in March 2020 [26], which all reported that chronic disease was associated with higher levels of psychological distress.”
From Worry and mental health in the Covid-19 pandemic: vulnerability factors in the general Norwegian population (2021) · cites this paper as [24]
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An exploration of the impact of COVID-19 on mental health in South Africa
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“This is in line with studies conducted in other countries during COVID-19 (Özdin & Bayrak Özdin, 2020; Salari et al., 2020) Despite of meeting the diagnostic threshold for anxiety and/or depression disorder, mental health service attendance was reportedly low, in particular among people without a pre-existing mental h…”
BackgroundResultHow the COVID-19 outbreak affected patients with diabetes mellitus?
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“Ozdin found that anxiety and depression were higher in women, individuals with chronic disease, and those have previous psychiatric illness history in Turkish society [39].”
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“…and avoidance behaviors resulting in anxiety, especially health anxiety (Asmundson & Taylor, 2020a; Corbett et al., 2020; Dilbaz et al., 2020; Özdin & Bayrak Özdin, 2020), and in turn affects the fear of COVID-19 (Mertens et al., 2020) and behavioral responses to the pandemic (Asmundson &…”
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“Students with past medical history are more likely to have anxiety and depression symptoms; this is consistent with recent research findings, in which a medical history of issues such as prior psychiatric illness, physical illness, or chronic disease was a risk factor for the deterioration of mental health [13-15], an…”
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“In studies related to COVID-19, it was revealed that women and the elderly are more affected psychologically (Özdin & Bayrak, 2020), and that people under the age of 35 have increased anxiety levels and avoidance behaviours due to their increased use of social media (Balkhi et al., 2020).”
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“This could be because men and women respond differently to stressors during the pandemic, which may cause women to misinterpret their own feelings and be more vulnerable to experience other negative emotions such as depression (Nakhostin-Ansari et al., 2020; Özdin & Bayrak Özdin, 2020).”
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Impact of Coronaphobia on Treatment and Follow-Up Compliance of Cancer Patients
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Psychological Distress among Adults in Home Confinement in the Midst of COVID-19 Outbreak
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“Our findings showed that individuals with a self-reported history of depression were more likely to meet the criteria for depression (21.6% vs. 4.4%, p .001), consistent with a study from Australia demonstrating that those without symptoms of depression reported minimal negative change, but those with pre-existing sev…”
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Understanding health anxiety in the COVID-19 pandemic
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“Additionally, this is not the first study to identify gender as a risk factor for health anxiety during the COVID19 pandemic (Kibbey et al., 2021; Özdin & Özdin, 2020) and relationship has been reported during other disease outbreaks such as the SARS outbreak in 2003, Beijing, China (Mihashi et…”
BackgroundAnxiety, resilience and local conditions: A cross‐cultural investigation in the time of Covid‐19
Moret‐Tatay, C., & Murphy, M. F. (2021) · International Journal of Psychology · doi:10.1002/ijop.12822 · Cited by 26
“It is also interesting to note the role of sex, as women seem to report higher levels of state anxiety (Özdin & Bayrak Özdin, 2020; Xiong et al., 2020), which is supported by the current results.”
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“Most of these studies were conducted in China, the country where COVID-19 emerged, although studies conducted in Taiwan, Vietnam, Singapore, Italy, Israel, Iran, Greece, Spain, USA, Turkey, and England were also included.”
BackgroundKepenek-Varol, B., Zeren, M., Dinçer, R., & Erkaya, S. (2022) · Journal of Integrative and Complementary Medicine · doi:10.1089/jicm.2021.0381 · Cited by 27
McDaniels, B. W., & Subramanian, I. (2022) · International review of neurobiology · doi:10.1016/bs.irn.2022.03.003 · Cited by 25
The impact of COVID‐related economic shocks on household mental health in Pakistan
Baranov, V., Grosjean, P. A., Khan, F. J., & Walker, S. (2022) · Health Economics · doi:10.1002/hec.4571 · Cited by 26
“…et al., 2020; O’Connor et al., 2021; Witteveen & Velthorst, 2020), with additional evidence from middle income countries, such as China (Li et al., 2020a, 2020b, 2020c; Dong & Bouey, 2020; Ho et al., 2020; Wang et al., 2020) and Turkey (Altindag et al., Forthcoming; Özdin & Bayrak Özdin, 2020).”
Teh, B. L. S., Ang, J. K., Koh, E. B. Y., & Pang, N. T. P. (2023) · International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health · doi:10.3390/ijerph20031894 · Cited by 23
“This differs somewhat from previous literature, where the female gender is generally a predictor for psychological distress, especially anxiety and health anxiety [39].”
ResultHealth anxiety, coping mechanisms and COVID 19: An Indian community sample at week 1 of lockdown
Barron Millar, E., Singhal, D., Vijayaraghavan, P., Seshadri, S., Smith, E., Dixon, P., Humble, S., Rodgers, J., & Sharma, A. N. (2021) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0250336 · Cited by 21
“In addition, health-related anxiety was highest in the 18–31 years group which has been previously reported [6, 57, 58].”
BackgroundChanges in alcohol use during the COVID-19 pandemic among American veterans
Davis, J. P., Prindle, J., Castro, C. C., Saba, S. K., Fitzke, R. E., & Pedersen, E. R. (2021) · Addictive Behaviors · doi:10.1016/j.addbeh.2021.107052 · Cited by 24
Landaeta‐Díaz, L., Durán‐Agüero, S., Veloz, M. F. V., Carpio-Arias, T. V., Cavagnari, B. M., Ríos-Castillo, I., Nava‐González, E. J., López, S. C., Guillén, S. I., Pérez-Armijo, P., et al. (2021) · SSM - Population Health · doi:10.1016/j.ssmph.2021.100933 · Cited by 23
“Another study on Turkish population showed similar results, nearly 45% of participants scored above the cut-off point for anxiety during the pandemic ( ¨ Ozdin & Bayrak ¨ 2020).”
Mental health and resilience during the coronavirus pandemic: A machine learning approach
Samuelson, K. W., Dixon, K. E., Jordan, J. T., Powers, T., Sonderman, S., & Brickman, S. (2021) · Journal of Clinical Psychology · doi:10.1002/jclp.23254 · Cited by 21
“These studies have identified female gender (González‐Sanguino et al., 2020; Mazza et al., 2020; Özdin & Bayrak Özdin, 2020; Wang et al., 2020), younger age (Elbay et al., 2020; González‐Sanguino et al., 2020; Huang & Zhao, 2020), pre‐existing mental health conditions (Asmundson et al., 2020;…”
BackgroundKassianos, A. P., Georgiou, A., Kyprianidou, M., Lamnisos, D., Ļubenko, J., Presti, G., Squatrito, V., Constantinou, M., Nicolaou, C., Papacostas, S., et al. (2021) · Cancers · doi:10.3390/cancers13246294 · Cited by 21
“This may be attributed to higher levels of mortality and morbidity identified in chronic patients who consequently are more protective of themselves and others [74,75].”
BackgroundAkdeniz, S., & Ahçı, Z. G. (2022) · The Educational and Developmental Psychologist · doi:10.1080/20590776.2022.2050460 · Cited by 25
“Although its effects may change depending on some sociodemographic variables, the pandemic and related restrictions and preventive measures had serious impacts on public mental health both in Turkey (Altındag et al., 2020; Ozdin & Bayrak Ozdin, 2020) and other countries (Elmer et al., 2020).”
BackgroundAnxiety among pregnant women during the first wave of the COVID-19 pandemic in Poland
Ilska, M., Brandt‐Salmeri, A., Kołodziej‐Zaleska, A., Preis, H., Rehbein, E., & Lobel, M. (2022) · Scientific Reports · doi:10.1038/s41598-022-12275-5 · Cited by 24
Markiewicz-Gospodarek, A., Górska, A., Markiewicz, R., Chilimoniuk, Z., Czeczelewski, M., Baj, J., Maciejewski, R., & Masiak, J. (2022) · International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health · doi:10.3390/ijerph19159573 · Cited by 23
Ulloa, R. E., Apiquián, R., de la Peña, F. R., Sánchez, R. D., Mayer, P., Palacio, J. D., Palacios‐Cruz, L., Hernández, A., García, P., & Rosetti, M. (2022) · Journal of Psychiatric Research · doi:10.1016/j.jpsychires.2022.10.005 · Cited by 26
“The number of people having someone with COVID 19 is much larger than the 10.2%–13.3% described in low- and middle-income countries such as Bangladesh (Yeasmin et al., 2020) and Turkey (Özdin, 2020).”
InfluentialAssessing Mental Health of Women Living in Karachi During the Covid-19 Pandemic
Asim, S. S., Ghani, S., Ahmed, M., Asim, A., & Qureshi, A. F. K. (2021) · Frontiers in Global Women s Health · doi:10.3389/fgwh.2020.594970 · Cited by 23
Gender differences in health anxiety and musculoskeletal symptoms during the COVID-19 pandemic
Kırmızı, M., Yalçinkaya, G., & Şengül, Y. S. (2021) · Journal of Back and Musculoskeletal Rehabilitation · doi:10.3233/bmr-200301 · Cited by 22
“Furthermore, many studies have been perfomed to determine the health anxiety-related factors during the pandemic, and the results have suggested that gender stands out as the predominant risk factor for health anxiety [16,17].”
BackgroundGambin, M., Sekowski, M. M., Woźniak‐Prus, M., Wnuk, A., Oleksy, T., Cudo, A., Hansen, K., Huflejt-Łukasik, M., Kubicka, K., Łyś, A. E., et al. (2020) · PsyArXiv (OSF Preprints) · doi:10.31234/osf.io/42m87 · Cited by 22
Mental Distress and Psychological Disorders Related to COVID-19 Mandatory Lockdown
Kakaje, A., Fadel, A., Makki, L., Ghareeb, A., & Zohbi, R. A. (2021) · Frontiers in Public Health · doi:10.3389/fpubh.2021.585235 · Cited by 21
COVID-19 Lockdown: Key Factors in Citizens’ Stress
Rodríguez, S., Valle, A., Piñeiro, I., González-Suárez, R., Díaz-Freire, F. M., & Vieites, T. (2021) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2021.666891 · Cited by 23
“Being female has been associated with more depressive symptoms, with more anxiety, and more reported stress during the periods of confinement (Taylor et al., 2008; González-Sanguino et al., 2020; Kang et al., 2020; Pappa et al., 2020; Qiu et al., 2020; Wang et al., 2020a,b).”
BackgroundUnderstanding relational resilience of married adults in quarantine days
Aydoğan, D., Kara, E., & Kalkan, E. (2021) · Current Psychology · doi:10.1007/s12144-021-02224-2 · Cited by 25
“…a matter of this fact, studies conducted on Turkish individuals have shown that the pandemic increases the risk of mental health problems (Ozdin & Bayrak Ozdin, 2020; Yilmaz & Eskici, 2020), and that intolerance to uncertainty has a significant direct effect on mental health (Satici et al., 2020).”
BackgroundPsychological Burden During the COVID-19 Pandemic in Germany
Schelhorn, I., Ecker, A., Lüdtke, M. N., Rehm, S., Tran, T., Bereznai, J., Meyer, M. L., Sütterlin, S., Kinateder, M. T., Lugo, R. G., et al. (2021) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2021.640518 · Cited by 19
“…have been shown to be related to lower social capital (Xiao et al., 2020), to poor mental health (Wang et al., 2021) and to COVID-19-infections (Özdin and Bayrak Özdin, 2020) while living in urban areas and a steady family income served as protection from elevated anxiety levels (Cao et al., 2020).”
BackgroundInfluentialNia, H. S., Görgülü, Ö., Naghavi, N., Bello, M. A. R., Sánchez‐Teruel, D., Fomani, F. K., She, L., Rahmatpour, P., Allen, K., Arslan, G., et al. (2021) · Frontiers in Psychiatry · doi:10.3389/fpsyt.2021.754831 · Cited by 29
Psychological Impact of COVID-19 Epidemic on Adolescents: A Large Sample Study in China
Zhou, J., Wang, Y., Bu, T., Zhang, S., Chu, H., Li, J., He, J., Zhang, Y., Liu, X., Qiao, Z., et al. (2021) · Frontiers in Psychiatry · doi:10.3389/fpsyt.2021.769697 · Cited by 23
Hwang, P., Ipekian, L., Jaiswal, N., Scott, G., Amirali, E. L., & Hechtman, L. (2022) · Current Psychology · doi:10.1007/s12144-021-02689-1 · Cited by 22
“Female parent respondents experienced significantly higher levels of anxiety and depression, mirroring findings from other studies and reviews (Salari et al., 2020; Özdin & Bayrak Özdin, 2020; Pierce et al., 2020).”
BackgroundResultInfluentialUz, B., Savaşan, E., & Soğancı, D. (2022) · Clinical Psychopharmacology and Neuroscience · doi:10.9758/cpn.2022.20.1.97 · Cited by 20
“The individuals with chronic disease had increased levels of depression, anxiety and health anxiety levels [31].”
BackgroundAkgül, G., & Ergin, D. A. (2022) · Psychology in the Schools · doi:10.1002/pits.22716 · Cited by 21
Langhammer, T., Peters, C., Ertle, A., Hilbert, K., & Lueken, U. (2022) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0272215 · Cited by 20
Hamka, H., Suen, M., Ramadhan, Y. A., Yusuf, M., & Wang, J.-H. (2022) · Psychology Research and Behavior Management · doi:10.2147/prbm.s381926 · Cited by 33
“Levels of worry and anxiety in the Indonesian population increased during the COVID −19 epidemic.(37) However, high spiritual well-being (religious and extended well-being) and public support for reducing anxiety, stress, and depression encourage people in Indonesia to take protective measures to minimize mental disor…”
BackgroundInfluentialFountoulakis, K. Ν., Karakatsoulis, G. N., Abraham, S., Adorjan, K., Ahmed, H. U., Alarcón, R. D., Arai, K., Salihu, A., Bobes, J., Bobes-Bascarán, T., et al. (2023) · Social Psychiatry and Psychiatric Epidemiology · doi:10.1007/s00127-023-02438-8 · Cited by 25
“In comparison, it has been reported that more than two-thirds of the general population experienced at least severe distress [18, 31, 50, 62, 80, 83, 110], and high levels of suicidality [19].”
BackgroundFear, anxiety, burnout, and insomnia levels of healthcare workers during COVID-19 pandemic in TurkeyPreprint
Yılmaz, Y., Erdogan, A. R., & Bahadır, E. (2022) · doi:10.22541/au.164864621.11164274/v1 · Cited by 21
“In a study, 56.59% of HCWs reported anxiety, depression, and insomnia symptoms, while the symptoms were mild in 38.47% and moderate in 18.12% of them (Que et al. 2020).”
BackgroundInfluential‘It’s the economy, stupid’: Lessons of a longitudinal study of depression in Argentina
Badellino, H., Gobbo, M. E., Torres, E., Aschieri, M. E., Biotti, M., Alvarez, V., Gigante, C., & Cachiarelli, M. (2021) · International Journal of Social Psychiatry · doi:10.1177/0020764021999687 · Cited by 21
“The COVID-19 pandemic started in December, 2019 in Wuhan, China, causing an unprecedented impact on global health (Huang & Zhao, 2020; Kang et al., 2020; Özdin & Özdin, 2020; Vindegaard & Benros, 2020).”
BackgroundAssessment of depression, anxiety and stress in COVID-19 infected individuals and their families
Prakash, J., Dangi, A., Chaterjee, K., Yadav, P., Srivastava, K., & Chauhan, V. S. (2021) · Medical Journal Armed Forces India · doi:10.1016/j.mjafi.2021.06.013 · Cited by 20
Mary‐Krause, M., Bustamante, J. J. H., Héron, M., Andersen, A. J., Aarbaoui, T. E., & Melchior, M. (2021) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0255158 · Cited by 20
Sleep, Diet, Physical Activity, and Stress during the COVID-19 Pandemic: A Qualitative Analysis
Orr, K., Ta, Z., Shoaf, K., Halliday, T. M., Tobin, S. Y., & Baron, K. G. (2022) · Behavioral Sciences · doi:10.3390/bs12030066 · Cited by 20
“In addition, cross-sectional studies from Italy and Turkey reported that female participants exhibited heightened acute stress, anxiety, and depression in comparison to male participants during the COVID-19 pandemic [36,37].”
BackgroundHagan, J. E., Quansah, F., Ankomah, F., Agormedah, E. K., Srem‐Sai, M., Frimpong, J. B., & Schack, T. (2022) · Social Sciences · doi:10.3390/socsci11030137 · Cited by 22
Women's mental health and COVID-19: increased vulnerability and inequalities
Arilha, M., Carvalho, A. P., Forster, T. A., Rodrigues, C. V. M., Briguglio, B., & Serruya, S. J. (2024) · Frontiers in Global Women s Health · doi:10.3389/fgwh.2024.1414355 · Cited by 25
Response to the COVID-19 Outbreak in Urban Settings in China
Ni, Z., Lebowitz, E. R., Zou, Z., Wang, H., Liu, H., Shrestha, R., Zhang, Q., Hu, J., Yang, S., Xu, L., et al. (2020) · Journal of Urban Health · doi:10.1007/s11524-020-00498-8 · Cited by 21
“A prior survey conducted in China (February) [24], and other surveys conducted in Italy (March) [26], Saudi Arabia (April) [27], Turkey (April) [28], and Germany (March– May) [25] have shown that the prevalence of anxiety increased significantly with the global escalation of the COVID-19 pandemic.”
BackgroundPsychological symptoms of COVID-19 epidemic: A systematic review of current evidence
SeyedAlinaghi, S., Karimi, A., Shobeiri, P., Nowroozi, A. A., Mehraeen, E., Afsahi, A. M., & Barzegary, A. (2020) · Psihologija · doi:10.2298/psi200703035s · Cited by 20
Anxiety and depression in relation to news about COVID-19: A study in general Paraguayan population
Torales, J. C., Barrios, I., Ayala, N., O’Higgins, M. G., Palacios, J. M., Ríos-González, C. M., García, Ó., Ruíz-Díaz, N., González, I., Navarro, R. E., et al. (2021) · Revista de salud publica del Paraguay · doi:10.18004/rspp.2021.junio.67 · Cited by 22
Schiff, M., Pat‐Horenczyk, R., & Benbenishty, R. (2025) · Journal of American College Health · doi:10.1080/07448481.2024.2447854 · Cited by 21
“As in other studies conducted during the COVID-19 pandemic, 30,31 women reported higher levels of depression and anxiety than did men.”
Öztürk, F. U., Turnaoğlu, H., & Uslu, N. (2022) · Acta Radiologica · doi:10.1177/02841851221116131 · Cited by 19
“The reason for this gap could be about the baseline levels of anxiety in Turkish women (21), elevated levels of anxiety during the COVID-19 pandemic (22,23), or an inherently stressed study population.”
BackgroundSyndemic aspects between COVID-19 pandemic and social inequalities
Apolonio, J. S., Júnior, R. T. D. S., Cuzzuol, B. R., Araújo, G. R. L., Marques, H. S., Barcelos, I. D. S., Santos, L. K. D. S., Malheiro, L. H., Gonçalves, V. L. D. S., & de Melo, F. F. (2022) · World Journal of Methodology · doi:10.5662/wjm.v12.i5.350 · Cited by 21
Explainable Deep-Learning-Based Depression Modeling of Elderly Community after COVID-19 Pandemic
Nguyen, H. V., & Byeon, H. (2022) · Mathematics · doi:10.3390/math10234408 · Cited by 15
Metadata
- Authors
- Özdin, S., & Bayrak Özdin, Ş.
- Affiliations
- Ondokuz Mayıs University (TR)
- Rasathane Family Health Center, Samsun, Turkey
- Corresponding author
- Özdin, Selçuk
- ORCID
- Özdin, Selçuk
- Venue
- International Journal of Social Psychiatry
- Publisher
- SAGE Publications
- Published
- 2020-05-08
- Volume
- 66
- Issue
- 5
- Pages
- 504-511
- ISSN
- 0020-7640 (ISSN-L)
- 1741-2854
- PMC
- PMC7405629
- OpenAlex
- W3023698214
- Cited by
- 1,405
- References
- 30
- Citations by year
- 2026: 20 · 2025: 67 · 2024: 120 · 2023: 214 · 2022: 397 · 2021: 447 · 2020: 140
- FWCI
- 119.67
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- hybrid
- doi.org
- Locations
- International Journal of Social Psychiatry (publishedVersion, cc-by)
- PubMed Central (publishedVersion, cc-by)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- RePEc: Research Papers in Economics (submittedVersion)
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Clinical Psychology › COVID-19 and Mental Health
- Health Sciences › Medicine › Public Health, Environmental and Occupational Health › Maternal Mental Health During Pregnancy and Postpartum
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Experimental and Cognitive Psychology › Anxiety, Depression, Psychometrics, Treatment, Cognitive Processes
- Keywords
- COVID-19 pandemic, anxiety, depression, health anxiety, gender differences, risk factors, psychiatric history, chronic disease, urban residence, Turkish population, mental health
- MeSH terms
- Betacoronavirus, COVID-19, SARS-CoV-2, Anxiety, Attitude to Health, Mental Disorders, Cross-Sectional Studies, Depression, Female, Humans, Male, Mental Health, Middle Aged, Pneumonia, Viral, Surveys and Questionnaires, Risk Factors, Self-Assessment, Sex Factors, Socioeconomic Factors, Turkey, Urban Population, Comorbidity, Causality, Coronavirus Infections, Pandemics
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