Children's perceptions of bullying, exclusion and defending in English primary schools: A qualitative study

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

Moral awareness does not necessarily predict behaviour; children often encounter tensions between what they judge to be right and what feels safe or socially acceptable within peer hierarchies.

“Yet moral awareness does not necessarily predict behaviour. Children often encounter tensions between what they judge to be right and what feels safe or socially acceptable within peer hierarchies (Thornberg et al., 2012).”

• cites Thornberg et al., 2012 sourceSupported

May combine two claims.

Programme trials that shift peer norms have reduced bullying and supported defending.

“Programme trials that shift peer norms have reduced bullying and supported defending, underlining the role of context in enabling moral action (Huitsing et al., 2020).”

• cites Huitsing et al., 2020 sourcePartly supported

  The Discussion reports that the Dutch KiVa trial reduced bullying, and the KiVa Antibullying Program section describes efforts to change group norms and encourage bystanders to support victims. But the Method > Measures section lists bullying and victimization outcomes, not defending or peer norms; the trial therefore does not establish that defending increased or that norms shifted. (LLM, conf=0.88)

  Experimental — accuracy not yet measured

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Positive peer norms and supportive school climates increase pupils' willingness to defend others, in U.S. and European samples.

“These fi ndings align with broader ecological evidence that positive peer norms and supportive school climates increase pupils ' willingness to defend others, in U.S. and European samples (Waasdorp et al., 2022).”

• cites Waasdorp et al., 2022 sourcePartly supported

  The Results (Multi-level Analyses; page unavailable) associate school safety and engagement with higher odds of reported defending among U.S. students. The paper does not establish that these conditions increase willingness to defend, and the cited passages do not show a positive-peer-norms finding or a European sample; its discussion of other samples concerns China and Canada. (LLM, conf=0.88)

  Experimental — accuracy not yet measured

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Sympathy, guilt and moral reasoning contribute to children's helping, cooperation and sharing across time.

“Longitudinal work shows that sympathy, guilt and moral reasoning contribute to children ' s helping, cooperation and sharing across time, supporting the view that prosocial action is grounded in moral emotions and evaluative judgement rather than altruism alone (Malti et al., 2016).”

• cites Malti et al., 2016 sourceSupported

May combine two claims.

Pupils' perceptions of school climate and peer relationships influence how they recognise and interpret bullying and whether they see intervention as possible.

“Recent studies show that pupils ' perceptions of school climate and peer relationships in fl uence how they recognise and interpret bullying and whether they see intervention as possible (Waasdorp et al., 2022).”

• cites Waasdorp et al., 2022 sourcePartly supported

  The Discussion reports associations between students’ perceptions of school climate and connectedness and their bullying bystander responses. It does not establish that those perceptions change how pupils recognise or interpret bullying, or whether they believe intervention is possible; the Individual-level associations section presents perceived risks of intervening as a possibility for future study. (LLM, conf=0.88)

  Experimental — accuracy not yet measured

May combine two claims.

Policies that promote supportive climates, characterised by warmth, inclusion, and visible adult care, have been shown to reduce peer aggression and foster a culture of defending.

“In contrast, policies that promote supportive climates, characterised by warmth, inclusion, and visible adult care, have been shown to reduce peer aggression and foster a culture of defending (Aldridge & McChesney, 2018; Waasdorp et al., 2022).”

• cites Aldridge & McChesney, 2018 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source
• cites Waasdorp et al., 2022 sourcePartly supported

  The Results (Multi-level Analyses; page unavailable) associate higher school-level safety and engagement with greater odds of students reporting defender behavior. The paper does not show that policies caused those climates or reduced peer aggression; the citing sentence turns an observed association into a demonstrated policy effect. (LLM, conf=0.87)

  Experimental — accuracy not yet measured

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Visible, valued prosocial action can alter classroom dynamics.

“For example, a large randomised trial in the Netherlands replicated the effectiveness of the KiVa programme in reducing bullying and victimisation, consistent with the idea that visible, valued prosocial action can alter classroom dynamics (Huitsing et al., 2020).”

• cites Huitsing et al., 2020 sourceSupported

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

A large randomised trial in the Netherlands replicated the effectiveness of the KiVa programme in reducing bullying and victimisation.

“For example, a large randomised trial in the Netherlands replicated the effectiveness of the KiVa programme in reducing bullying and victimisation, consistent with the idea that visible, valued prosocial action can alter classroom dynamics (Huitsing et al., 2020).”

• cites Huitsing et al., 2020 sourceSupported

May combine two claims.

A few pupils described acting despite risk when they felt the harm was clear and immediate, although most adjusted what they did to the audience and setting.

“A few described acting despite risk when they felt the harm was clear and immediate, although most adjusted what they did to the audience and setting.”

May combine two claims.

Across accounts, pupils recognised exclusion and distress and often wanted to help, but naming, timing and action were shaped by perceived risk, competing pressures and uncertainty about the best next step.

“Across accounts, empathy met constraint. Pupils recognised exclusion and distress and often wanted to help, but naming, timing and action were shaped by perceived risk, competing pressures and uncertainty about the best next step.”

May combine two claims.

Children expressed empathy for victims and suggested ways to help.

“Across the majority of dyadic interviews, pupils described feeling for children who were left out or upset and suggested ways they might help.”

• Also stated in: § Theme 2: Empathy constrained: barriers to moral action in school settings · p. 10 · boosted

  “Empathy was clear in how pupils read situations and inferred feeling states.”

May combine two claims.

Children's recognition and interpretation of bullying were shaped by context, status, audience, and how public the moment felt.

“Criteria were applied with attention to context, status and audience.”

May combine two claims.

Decisions about helping were filtered through ideas of fairness, deservingness and the hope that care would be returned, a pattern evident across most interview pairs.

“Decisions were fi ltered through ideas of fairness, deservingness and the hope that care would be returned, a pattern evident across most interview pairs.”

May combine two claims.

Three themes were identified: understanding bullying dynamics, empathy constrained, and moral dimensions of prosocial defence and reciprocity.

“Thematic analysis of the interview data revealed three key themes: (1) Understanding Bullying Dynamics, (2) Empathy Constrained: Barriers to Moral Action in School Settings, and (3) Moral Dimensions of Prosocial Defence and Reciprocity”

May combine two claims.

Many pupils recognised distress and wished to act but lacked confidence, procedural clarity, or emotional safety.

“Many pupils recognised distress and wished to act but lacked con fi dence, procedural clarity, or emotional safety.”

May combine two claims.

Across interviews, pupils presented kindness as both an ethical value and a relational practice.

“Across interviews, pupils presented kindness as both an ethical value and a relational practice.”

May combine two claims.

Children's moral reflections carried a forward-looking dimension; several described hoping that helping someone might make them nicer next time or encourage others to behave more kindly.

“Children ' s moral re fl ections also carried a forward-looking dimension. Several described hoping that helping someone might ' make them nicer next time ' or encourage others to behave more kindly.”

May combine two claims.

Participants in this study recognised exclusion and distress, but their sense of agency was often diminished by uncertainty about how others, peers or adults, would respond.

“Participants in this study recognised exclusion and distress, but their sense of agency was often diminished by uncertainty about how others, peers or adults, would respond.”

May combine two claims.

Pupils portrayed prosocial acts as fitting with who they wanted to be, as well as with what they thought was right.

“Pupils portrayed prosocial acts as fi tting with who they wanted to be, as well as with what they thought was right.”

May combine two claims.

In the present study, children's accounts highlighted awareness of who was involved, who witnessed events and how social positioning could determine what counted as bullying and whether it might be challenged.

“In the present study, children ' s accounts similarly highlighted awareness of who was involved, who witnessed events and how social positioning could determine what counted as bullying and whether it might be challenged.”

May combine two claims.

Children described feeling sympathy and moral concern but recognised that acting on these feelings could entail social risk.

“Children described feeling sympathy and moral concern but recognised that acting on these feelings could entail social risk.”

May combine two claims.

Across interviews, pupils spoke about the pressures of peer hierarchies and the fear of retaliation.

“Across interviews, pupils spoke about the pressures of peer hierarchies and the fear of retaliation.”

May combine two claims.

Many participants expressed clear empathy for peers who were bullied or excluded, but their accounts revealed this awareness was often met with hesitation or restraint.

“While many participants expressed clear empathy for peers who were bullied or excluded, their accounts revealed how this awareness was often met with hesitation or restraint.”

May combine two claims.

From pupils' perspectives, defending was rarely a neutral act; it could disrupt friendships, invite ridicule, or jeopardise one's own standing within the group.

“From pupils ' perspectives, defending was rarely a neutral act; it could disrupt friendships, invite ridicule, or jeopardise one ' s own standing within the group.”

May combine two claims.

Many pupils described helping because it was 'the right thing to do', while others linked kindness to maintaining or repairing relationships.

“Many described helping because it was ' the right thing to do ' , while others linked kindness to maintaining or repairing relationships.”

May combine two claims.

Across accounts, children recognised bullying as deliberate and emotionally harmful, and they described both empathy and hesitation in their anticipated responses.

“Across accounts, children recognised bullying as deliberate and emotionally harmful, and they described both empathy and hesitation in their anticipated responses.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Ethical approval was granted by the University of Nottingham, School of Psychology Research Ethics Committee (approval F1405).

“Prior to beginning the study, ethical approval was granted by the University of Nottingham, School of Psychology Research Ethics Committee (approval F1405).”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

Children distinguish moral concerns from social-conventional and personal ones and use that distinction when making sense of peer harm.

“Children distinguish moral concerns from social-conventional and personal ones and use that distinction when making sense of peer harm (Smetana, 2013).”

• cites Smetana, 2013 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

Written parental consent and written child assent were obtained prior to participation.

“Written parental consent and written child assent were obtained prior to participation.”

May combine two claims.

Defending is easier when the social environment is safe and prosocial norms are visible, and harder when harm is tied to status and group loyalty.

“Evidence shows that defending is easier when the social environment is safe and prosocial norms are visible, and harder when harm is tied to status and group loyalty.”

• cites Pozzoli & Gini, 2010 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source
• cites Salmivalli et al., 2011 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S3 (load-bearing).

The findings may be most relevant for researchers, educators, and practitioners working with children in comparable primary education contexts where peer hierarchies, belonging, and moral expectations are negotiated in daily school interactions.

“The fi ndings may therefore be most relevant for researchers, educators, and practitioners working with children in comparable primary education contexts where peer hierarchies, belonging, and moral expectations are negotiated in daily school interactions.”

May combine two claims.

Defending cannot be understood only as a moral decision; it is also a relational one, entangled with how pupils perceive peer norms, teacher visibility and the likelihood of support.

“The implication is that defending cannot be understood only as a moral decision; it is also a relational one, entangled with how pupils perceive peer norms, teacher visibility and the likelihood of support.”

May combine two claims.

These accounts show a nuanced moral vocabulary and an early sensitivity to the relational dimensions of harm often underplayed in behaviourist models.

“Rather than supporting earlier assumptions that younger pupils lack the social understanding to appreciate complexity, these accounts show a nuanced moral vocabulary and an early sensitivity to the relational dimensions of harm often underplayed in behaviourist models.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

In England, recent national monitoring indicates that bullying and related harms remain a salient concern in primary years.

“In England, recent national monitoring indicates that bullying and related harms remain a salient concern in primary years (Department for Education, 2025; Of fi ce for National Statistics, 2024).”

• cites Department for Education, 2025Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

• cites Office for National Statistics, 2024Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

May combine two claims.

Primary-aged children are capable of empathic perspective-taking and moral evaluation.

“Such insights af fi rm that primary-aged children are capable of empathic perspectivetaking and moral evaluation.”

May combine two claims.

Emotional awareness may be necessary but not sufficient for prosocial response: intentions were negotiated within perceived hierarchies and concerns about belonging.

“Emotional awareness may therefore be necessary but not suf fi cient for prosocial response: intentions were negotiated within perceived hierarchies and concerns about belonging.”

May combine two claims.

Self-regulatory demands, emotional arousal and stress can all reduce children's capacity to act on prosocial motivations.

“Developmental research supports these accounts: self-regulatory demands, emotional arousal and stress can all reduce children ' s capacity to act on prosocial motivations (Eisenberg et al., 2006).”

• cites Eisenberg et al., 2006Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

Classroom-level studies link bystander behaviour to bullying frequency, and pupils' perceptions of safety and peer norms influence whether they act.

“This fi nding aligns with classroom-level studies linking bystander behaviour to bullying frequency and with evidence that pupils ' perceptions of safety and peer norms in fl uence whether they act (Salmivalli et al., 2011).”

• cites Salmivalli et al., 2011 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Theme 3 captures pupils' shift from empathy to evaluation.

“Analytically, Theme 3 captures pupils ' shift from empathy to evaluation.”

Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

Moral evaluations in middle childhood integrate considerations of fairness, intent and social context.

“consistent with developmental evidence that moral evaluations in middle childhood integrate considerations of fairness, intent and social context (Killen & Smetana, 2022)”

• cites Killen & Smetana, 2022Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

May combine two claims.

Acts of kindness were often weighed against fairness, past behaviour and likely outcomes, so prosocial defence appeared both principled and strategic, shaped by relationships and by what pupils hoped their actions might set in motion.

“Acts of kindness were often weighed against fairness, past behaviour and likely outcomes, so prosocial defence appeared both principled and strategic, shaped by relationships and by what pupils hoped their actions might set in motion.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

The widely accepted definition of bullying is intentional, repeated harm within relationships marked by power imbalance.

“the widely accepted de fi nition of bullying as intentional, repeated harm within relationships marked by power imbalance (Olweus, 1993)”

• cites Olweus, 1993Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).

While these findings derive from English primary schools, their relational emphasis resonates with international evidence on how peer norms and adult responsiveness shape children's sense of safety and belonging.

“While these fi ndings derive from English primary schools, their relational emphasis resonates with international evidence on how peer norms and adult responsiveness shape children ' s sense of safety and belonging.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

Teachers' modelling, peer norms, and school climate are likely to influence how children perceive moral safety and responsibility.

“Teachers ' modelling, peer norms, and school climate are likely to in fl uence how children perceive moral safety and responsibility (Hymel & Swearer, 2015).”

• cites Hymel & Swearer, 2015 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

DBS clearance was applied and granted to researchers who did not have this already.

“DBS clearance was also applied and granted to researchers who did not have this already.”

Classified as probably not a substantial claim. May combine two claims.

The findings do not observe behaviour directly but illuminate how pupils conceptualise moral responsibility in the face of peer risk.

“The fi ndings do not observe behaviour directly but illuminate how pupils conceptualise moral responsibility in the face of peer risk.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Written consent was signed and obtained from participants and their parents prior to being interviewed.

“Written consent was signed and obtained from participants and their parents (as participants were under 16 years of age) prior to being interviewed.”

Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

Cyberbullying was intentionally excluded to focus on face-to-face dynamics.

“Cyberbullying was intentionally excluded to focus on face-to-face dynamics, yet digital interactions increasingly shape children ' s moral and relational worlds.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable).

The study contributes to a more situated account of moral reasoning in school life.

“By foregrounding children ' s interpretations and anticipated responses, this study contributes to a more situated account of moral reasoning in school life.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Adult and institutional perspectives were beyond the scope of this study.

“Finally, adult and institutional perspectives were beyond the scope of this study.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

Moral reasoning and peer influence evolve through adolescence.

“As moral reasoning and peer in fl uence evolve through adolescence (Eisenberg et al., 2006), longitudinal work is needed to trace how empathy, fairness, and belonging interact over time.”

• cites Eisenberg et al., 2006Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

Informed consent was obtained from participants via an online survey and confirmed verbally prior to the interviews.

“Informed consent was obtained from participants via an online survey and con fi rmed verbally prior to the interviews.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Children's peer relationships, perceptions of harm, and access to moral and social safety are shaped by intersecting social positions, including race and ethnicity.

“Research indicates that children ' s peer relationships, perceptions of harm, and access to moral and social safety are shaped by intersecting social positions, including race and ethnicity (Hymel & Swearer, 2015; Killen & Smetana, 2022).”

• cites Hymel & Swearer, 2015 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source
• cites Killen & Smetana, 2022Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Informed consent for publication was provided by the participants.

“Informed consent for publication was provided by the participants.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Ethical approval was granted from the University of Nottingham (Ethics number F1405).

“Ethical approval was granted from the University of Nottingham and obtained by the principal supervisor, Aneeza Pervez; Ethics number: F1405.”

Classified as probably not a substantial claim. May combine two claims.

Paired interviews and hypothetical scenarios offered an ethically sensitive means of accessing moral reasoning but may reflect aspirational or socially desirable accounts.

“Paired interviews and hypothetical scenarios offered an ethically sensitive means of accessing moral reasoning but may re fl ect aspirational or socially desirable accounts.”