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Cited by 1,638Online and Blended LearningOnline Learning Methods and InnovationsTechnology-Enhanced Education Studies

The effectiveness of online and blended learning: A meta-analysis of the empirical literature

Means, Barbara, Toyama, Yukie, Murphy, Robert, Baki, Marianne·2013·Teachers College Record: The Voice of Scholarship in Education
DOI 10.1177/016146811311500307
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Abstract

Background/Context: Earlier research on various forms of distance learning concluded that these technologies do not differ significantly from regular classroom instruction in terms of learning outcomes. Now that web-based learning has emerged as a major trend in both K–12 and higher education, the relative efficacy of online and face-to-face instruction needs to be revisited. The increased capabilities of web-based applications and collaboration technologies and the rise of blended learning models combining web-based and face-to-face classroom instruction have raised expectations for the effectiveness of online learning. Purpose/Objective/Research Question/Focus of Study: This meta-analysis was designed to produce a statistical synthesis of studies contrasting learning outcomes for either fully online or blended learning conditions with those of face-to-face classroom instruction. Population/Participants/Subjects: The types of learners in the meta-analysis studies were about evenly split between students in college or earlier years of education and learners in graduate programs or professional training. The average learner age in a study ranged from 13 to 44. Intervention/Program/Practice: The meta-analysis was conducted on 50 effects found in 45 studies contrasting a fully or partially online condition with a fully face-to-face instructional condition. Length of instruction varied across studies and exceeded one month in the majority of them. Research Design: The meta-analysis corpus consisted of (1) experimental studies using random assignment and (2) quasi-experiments with statistical control for preexisting group differences. An effect size was calculated or estimated for each contrast, and average effect sizes were computed for fully online learning and for blended learning. A coding scheme was applied to classify each study in terms of a set of conditions, practices, and methodological variables. Findings/Results: The meta-analysis found that, on average, students in online learning conditions performed modestly better than those receiving face-to-face instruction. The advantage over face-to-face classes was significant in those studies contrasting blended learning with traditional face-to-face instruction but not in those studies contrasting purely online with face-to-face conditions. Conclusions/Recommendations: Studies using blended learning also tended to involve additional learning time, instructional resources, and course elements that encourage interactions among learners. This confounding leaves open the possibility that one or all of these other practice variables contributed to the particularly positive outcomes for blended learning. Further research and development on different blended learning models is warranted. Experimental research testing design principles for blending online and face-to-face instruction for different kinds of learners is needed.

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  • Existing meta-analyses generally indicate either that academic performance in online learning is higher than in face-to-face courses or that there are no significant differences between the two.

    “Existing meta-analyses tend to support the idea that either the academic performance of students –as final course grades– in online learning is higher than in face-to-face courses, or there are no significant differences between both.”

    From Emergency remote teaching and students’ academic performance in higher education during the COVID-19 pandemic: A case study (2021) · cites this paper as Means et al., 2013

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Authors
Means, B., Toyama, Y., Murphy, R., & Baki, M.
Affiliations
SRI International (US)
ORCID
Venue
Teachers College Record: The Voice of Scholarship in Education
Publisher
SAGE Publications
Published
2013-03
Volume
115
Issue
3
Pages
1-47
ISSN
  • 0040-0475 (ISSN-L)
  • 0161-4681
  • 1467-9620
DOI
10.1177/016146811311500307
OpenAlex
W1719359252
Cited by
1,638
References
98
Citations by year
2026: 176 · 2025: 203 · 2024: 160 · 2023: 188 · 2022: 166 · 2021: 208 · 2020: 152 · 2019: 108 · 2018: 95 · 2017: 59 · 2016: 51 · 2015: 45 · 2014: 22 · 2013: 4
FWCI
28.64
Type
journal article
Language
en
Open access
closed
Licence
journals.sagepub.com/page/policies/text-and-data-mining-license (tdm)
Locations
Teachers College Record The Voice of Scholarship in Education (publishedVersion)
Topics
  • Social Sciences › Education › Online and Blended Learning
  • Social Sciences › Education › Online Learning Methods and Innovations
  • Social Sciences › Education › Technology-Enhanced Education Studies
Keywords
online learning, blended learning, face-to-face teaching, learning outcomes, distance education, web-based learning, teaching effectiveness, effect size, K-12 education, higher education, professional training, student interaction

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