Cited by 231Sexual Differentiation and DisordersAutism Spectrum Disorder ResearchNeuroendocrine regulation and behavior

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Topical Review: Fetal Testosterone and Sex Differences in Typical Social Development and in Autism

Knickmeyer, Rebecca Christine, Baron-Cohen, Simon·2006·Journal of Child Neurology

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Abstract

Experiments in animals leave no doubt that androgens, including testosterone, produced by the testes in fetal and/or neonatal life act on the brain to induce sex differences in neural structure and function. In human beings, there is evidence supporting a female superiority in the ability to read nonverbal signals, specific language-related skills, and theory of mind. Even more striking than the sex differences seen in the typical population is the elevated occurrence of social and communicative difficulties in human males. One such condition, autism, occurs four times more frequently in boys than in girls. Recently, a novel theory known as the "extreme male brain" has been proposed. It suggests that the behaviors seen in autism are an exaggeration of typical sex differences and that exposure to high levels of prenatal testosterone might be a risk factor. In this article, we argue that prenatal and neonatal testosterone exposures are strong candidates for having a causal role in sexual dimorphism in human behavior, including social development, and as risk factors for conditions characterized by social impairments, particularly autism spectrum conditions.

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Authors: Knickmeyer, R. C., & Baron-Cohen, S.
Affiliations: University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill (US)
The Autism Research Centre Department of Psychiatry, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, UK
Corresponding author: Knickmeyer, Rebecca Christine
ORCID: Knickmeyer, Rebecca Christine
Venue: Journal of Child Neurology
Publisher: SAGE Publications
Published: 2006-10
Volume: 21
Issue: 10
Pages: 825-845
ISSN: 0883-0738 (ISSN-L)
1708-8283
DOI: 10.1177/08830738060210101601
OpenAlex: W2014925500
Cited by: 230
References: 250
Citations by year: 2026: 2 · 2025: 7 · 2024: 6 · 2023: 10 · 2022: 9 · 2021: 13 · 2020: 11 · 2019: 9 · 2018: 9 · 2017: 10 · 2016: 14 · 2015: 17 · 2014: 15 · 2013: 13 · 2012: 11
FWCI: 1.01
Type: journal article
Language: en
Open access: closed
Licence: journals.sagepub.com/page/policies/text-and-data-mining-license (tdm)
Locations: Journal of Child Neurology (publishedVersion)
PubMed (publishedVersion)
Topics: Health Sciences › Medicine › Endocrinology, Diabetes and Metabolism › Sexual Differentiation and Disorders
Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Cognitive Neuroscience › Autism Spectrum Disorder Research
Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Endocrine and Autonomic Systems › Neuroendocrine regulation and behavior
Keywords: prenatal testosterone, sex differences, autism spectrum disorder, social development (developmental psychology), extreme male brain theory, androgens, social communication deficits, theory of mind, sexual dimorphism, autism risk factors
MeSH terms: Animals, Autistic Disorder, Female, Fetus, Humans, Male, Pregnancy, Sex Characteristics, Social Change, Testosterone

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Topical Review: Fetal Testosterone and Sex Differences in Typical Social Development and in Autism

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