Public libraries as social infrastructure: An integrative review of community roles

May combine two claims.

Vårheim (2014) suggests that trust in the library, in staff and in other users can develop through repeated programme-based interaction, and that under certain conditions library programmes can provide a starting point for trust-building spirals.

“The study suggests that trust in the library, in staff and in other users can develop through repeated programmebased interaction.Again, the point is not that all library participation produces generalised trust, but that under certain conditions library programmes can provide a starting point for trust-building spirals.”

• cites Vårheim, 2014 sourceSupported

May combine two claims.

Public libraries do not only offer resources; they help people use them.

“Public libraries do not only offer resources; they help people use them.”

• cites Bertot et al., 2013Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

• cites Johnston, 2019Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

• cites Serra and Revez, 2024 sourceSupported

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).

Wellbeing support often requires the relational pathways that also sustain social capital formation.

“and wellbeing support often requires the relational pathways that also sustain social capital formation.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).

Digital inclusion intersects with civic participation in ways that connect it to the public sphere tradition.

“digital inclusion intersects with civic participation in ways that connect it to the public sphere tradition;”

May combine two claims.

Across five strands of scholarship, public libraries are repeatedly shown to matter as democratic spaces, relational institutions, community places, digital access infrastructures and low-threshold support interfaces.

“Across five strands of scholarship, public libraries are repeatedly shown to matter as democratic spaces, relational institutions, community places, digital access infrastructures and low-threshold support interfaces.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable).

The literature is still only partially cumulative.

“Thirdly, the literature is still only partially cumulative.”

May combine two claims.

The five strands reviewed here are analytically distinguishable but not empirically separable.

“It is also worth acknowledging explicitly that the five strands reviewed here are analytically distinguishable but not empirically separable.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S4 (based).

Subfields often speak past each other even when they are describing overlapping institutional processes.

“Subfields often speak past each other even when they are describing overlapping institutional processes.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based).

The literature reviewed here reflects a marked geographic skew, drawing predominantly on scholarship from Scandinavia, the United Kingdom and North America.

“Finally, the literature reviewed here reflects a marked geographic skew, drawing predominantly on scholarship from Scandinavia, the United Kingdom and North America.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable).

The literature is still marked by conceptual slippage.

“First, the literature is still marked by conceptual slippage.”

Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

Terms such as democracy, inclusion, engagement, value and wellbeing are often used expansively without clear specification of the outcomes or mechanisms implied.

“Terms such as democracy, inclusion, engagement, value and wellbeing are often used expansively without clear specification of the outcomes or mechanisms implied.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

Qualitative case studies and practice-oriented accounts are abundant and valuable.

“Qualitative case studies and practiceoriented accounts are abundant and valuable, but comparative, longitudinal and mixed-method work remains relatively scarce.”

May combine two claims.

Scholarship has generated a substantial catalogue of functions but less clarity about how those functions fit together conceptually.

“As a result, scholarship has generated a substantial catalogue of functions but less clarity about how those functions fit together conceptually.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based).

Austerity, social fragmentation and rising everyday precarity have increased attention to institutions that remain free, routine and broadly accessible.

“Thirdly, austerity, social fragmentation and rising everyday precarity have increased attention to institutions that remain free, routine and broadly accessible.”

• AssumptionRests on an assumption: Public libraries are free, routine and broadly accessible institutions.

May combine two claims.

The literature on the community roles of public libraries remains fragmented across thematic domains and often under-specifies the mechanisms through which libraries generate community effects.

“The review argues that the literature has moved decisively beyond narrow service-centred conceptions of the public library, yet remains fragmented across thematic domains and often under-specifies the mechanisms through which libraries generate community effects.”

• Also stated in: § Introduction · plain

  “Yet this literature remains analytically fragmented.Studies of democracy and the public sphere often develop separately from work on social capital, community engagement, digital inclusion, or health and welfare support.”

• cites Vårheim et al., 2019 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source
• cites Sørensen, 2021 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source
• cites Hanell, 2026 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Hanell (2026) shows that even when democracy is central to the argument, it is not always clearly theorised.

“More recent work has also shown that even when democracy is central to the argument, it is not always clearly theorised (Hanell, 2026).”

• cites Hanell, 2026 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

May combine two claims.

Sørensen (2021) demonstrates that value research has accumulated unevenly and still leaves important conceptual and methodological gaps.

“Vårheim et al. (2019) show that work on libraries as public sphere institutions is dispersed across multiple research questions and methods, while Sørensen (2021) demonstrates that value research has accumulated unevenly and still leaves important conceptual and methodological gaps.”

• cites Sørensen, 2021 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).

LIS applications of social capital theory have not always engaged with these critiques.

“LIS applications of social capital theory have not always engaged with these critiques, and future work would benefit from doing so.”

Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

Audunson's (2005) concept of 'low-intensive meeting places' emphasises the democratic importance of routine, low-barrier environments in which diverse people can be present with one another without requiring strong prior ties or formal deliberation.

“His concept of 'low-intensive meeting places' emphasises the democratic importance of routine, lowbarrier environments in which diverse people can be present with one another without requiring strong prior ties or formal deliberation.”

• cites Audunson, 2005 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable). May combine two claims.

The five strands used to organise the review are analytically distinguishable but not empirically separable.

“It is worth acknowledging at this point that the five strands used to organise the review are analytically distinguishable but not empirically separable.”

May combine two claims.

The third-place concept has influenced library design and programming and continues to inform discussions of how public libraries can sustain community sociability in an era of privatised leisure and declining civic infrastructure.

“The third-place concept has influenced library design and programming and continues to inform discussions of how public libraries can sustain community sociability in an era of privatised leisure and declining civic infrastructure.”

• cites Oldenburg, 1989Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

• cites Oldenburg, 2001Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).

One of the most influential lines of scholarship conceptualises the public library as a public sphere institution.

“One of the most influential lines of scholarship conceptualises the public library as a public sphere institution.”

May combine two claims.

Appleton and Hall (2023) show that the public library's public-sphere role is bound up with its epistemic function, and that public library space supports person-to-person knowledge exchange beyond formal information provision.

“Appleton and Hall (2023) further deepen this perspective by showing that the public library's public-sphere role is bound up with its epistemic function.Drawing on longitudinal focus groups in UK public libraries, they argue that public library space supports person-to-person knowledge exchange in ways that extend beyond formal information provision.”

• cites Appleton and Hall, 2023Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

May combine two claims.

Johnson (2010) found that library users reported higher levels of community involvement and trust than a comparison sample, although the relationship between frequency of use and social capital was not straightforward.

“Johnson (2010) used survey data to examine the relationship between library use and indicators of social capital in a large Midwestern US city.Library users reported higher levels of community involvement and trust than a comparison sample, although the relationship between frequency of use and social capital was not straightforward.”

• cites Johnson, 2010 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

May combine two claims.

Much of the literature moves among these understandings without stating clearly which democratic effect is being claimed, so 'democracy' often functions as an umbrella term rather than a specified analytical category.

“Much of the literature moves among these understandings without stating clearly which democratic effect is being claimed.”

• Also stated in: § Public libraries as public sphere institutions · plain

  “As a result, 'democracy' often functions as an umbrella term rather than a specified analytical category.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Carlsson et al. (2023) offer a more precisely theorised account, examining how public libraries can actively support democratic processes through information access, civic education and deliberative programming.

“Carlsson et al. (2023) offer a more precisely theorised account, examining how public libraries can actively support democratic processes through information access, civic education and deliberative programming.”

• cites Carlsson et al., 2023 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

Recent work has suggested that public library programmes can contribute to cultural capital development and help bridge cultural divides, particularly for immigrant and minority-language communities.

“Recent work has suggested that public library programmes can contribute to cultural capital development and help bridge cultural divides, particularly for immigrant and minority-language communities (Lee, 2025;Wojciechowska and Topolska, 2021).”

• cites Lee, 2025Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

• cites Wojciechowska and Topolska, 2021 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable).

The concept of social infrastructure is preferable to a simple list of functions because it identifies what otherwise diverse activities share: they organise access, encounter, capability-building and low-threshold support in ways that shape community life.

“This concept is preferable to a simple list of functions because it identifies what otherwise diverse activities share: they organise access, encounter, capability-building and low-threshold support in ways that shape community life.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

Putnam's account has attracted substantial criticism: critics argue that it can naturalise social homogeneity, underplay structural inequalities and attribute social problems to deficits of trust rather than to political and economic arrangements.

“It should be noted, however, that Putnam's account has attracted substantial criticism: critics argue that it can naturalise social homogeneity, underplay structural inequalities and attribute social problems to deficits of trust rather than to political and economic arrangements (Gelderblom, 2018).”

• cites Gelderblom, 2018 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Classified as probably not a substantial claim. May combine two claims.

Vårheim (2007) argued that public libraries should be taken seriously within wider social capital debates, and showed that library scholarship had produced suggestive empirical findings but had rarely connected them to broader theoretical puzzles about how institutions generate social capital.

“Vårheim (2007) provided a crucial starting point by arguing that public libraries should be taken seriously within wider social capital debates.He showed that library scholarship had produced suggestive empirical findings but had rarely connected them to broader theoretical puzzles about how institutions generate social capital.”

• cites Vårheim, 2007 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

May combine two claims.

The place-based tradition has been shaped partly by Oldenburg's concept of the 'third place', and public libraries share many third-place qualities and are frequently cited as third places.

“The place-based tradition has been shaped partly by Oldenburg's (1989Oldenburg's ( , 2001) ) concept of the 'third place'.”

• Also stated in: § Public libraries as community places and engagement hubs · plain

  “Oldenburg identified examples such as coffeehouses and barbershops; public libraries share many of these qualities and are frequently cited as third places in both scholarly analysis and policy argument.”

• cites Oldenburg, 1989Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

• cites Oldenburg, 2001Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable).

The public library can be conceptualised as social infrastructure: a public institution that helps organise the social and informational conditions within which democratic life becomes possible.

“It also points towards a broader conceptualisation of the library as social infrastructure: a public institution that helps organise the social and informational conditions within which democratic life becomes possible.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Vårheim et al. (2019), in a mapping review of libraries as public sphere institutions, show that the literature encompasses community, institutional practice, funding, service design and knowledge organisation.

“Vårheim et al. (2019), in a mapping review of libraries as public sphere institutions, show that the literature encompasses community, institutional practice, funding, service design and knowledge organisation.”

• cites Vårheim et al., 2019 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

May combine two claims.

Community engagement overlaps meaningfully with the social capital literature, since both are concerned with relational ties and civic participation; the key distinction is that the place literature foregrounds spatial and institutional conditions while the social capital literature focuses on relational outcomes.

“It is worth noting that community engagement-the second theme of this strand-overlaps meaningfully with the social capital literature reviewed above, since both are concerned with relational ties and civic participation.The key distinction is one of emphasis: the place literature foregrounds the spatial and institutional conditions for engagement, while the social capital literature focuses on the”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Putnam's formulation, which distinguishes between bonding capital and bridging capital, has been particularly influential in library research.

“Putnam's formulation, which distinguishes between bonding capital (ties within homogeneous groups) and bridging capital (ties across diverse groups), has been particularly influential in library research.”

• cites Putnam, 2000 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

The relationship between library use and cultural capital remains underexplored relative to social capital.

“The relationship between library use and cultural capital remains underexplored relative to social capital, and represents an area where future research could productively build.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based).

Several studies use related but not identical terms-community engagement, public sphere, social capital, inclusion, wellbeing, place, value-as if they referred to the same outcome.

“Several studies use related but not identical terms-community engagement, public sphere, social capital, inclusion, wellbeing, place, value-as if they referred to the same outcome.”

Classified as probably not a substantial claim. May combine two claims.

Both Sørensen (2021) and Blanchard et al. (2026) remain bounded by the value vocabulary that organises their respective corpora.

“Both reviews are indispensable, but both remain bounded by the value vocabulary that organises their respective corpora.”

• cites Sørensen, 2021 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source
• cites Blanchard et al., 2026 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

May combine two claims.

Neither Sørensen (2021) nor Blanchard et al. (2026) asks whether the diverse functions catalogued under 'value' or 'impact' share an underlying institutional logic, and neither steps outside the LIS literature to ask what kind of public institution the library is.

“Neither asks whether the diverse functions catalogued under 'value' or 'impact' share an underlying institutional logic, and neither steps outside the LIS literature to ask what kind of public institution the library is.”

• cites Sørensen, 2021 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source
• cites Blanchard et al., 2026 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

A third strand centres on the public library as place, highlighting the institutional and spatial conditions that make interaction possible.

“A third strand centres on the public library as place.If the social capital literature highlights interaction, the place literature highlights the institutional and spatial conditions that make such interaction possible.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable). May combine two claims.

In this line of scholarship, the library is understood not merely as a place where information is stored or accessed, but as a setting in which citizens encounter difference, access public knowledge and participate in forms of shared civic life.

“Here the library is understood not merely as a place where information is stored or accessed, but as a setting in which citizens encounter difference, access public knowledge and participate in forms of shared civic life.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable). May combine two claims.

An integrative review is a form of research synthesis that allows for the inclusion of diverse methodological traditions and enables the reviewer to build new frameworks from existing literature.

“An integrative review is a form of research synthesis that allows for the inclusion of diverse methodological traditions-experimental, qualitative and conceptual-and enables the reviewer to build new frameworks from existing literature (Torraco, 2016;Whittemore and Knafl, 2005).”

• cites Torraco, 2016 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source
• cites Whittemore and Knafl, 2005 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

May combine two claims.

Library use and social capital are related, but the relationship is conditional and mediated rather than automatic.

“Library use and social capital are related, but the relationship is conditional and mediated rather than automatic.”

• cites Johnson, 2010 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

The public sphere literature has not been limited to a single normative claim; it has developed as a dispersed set of questions about how libraries engage in public life and what kinds of activities count as public-sphere work.

“Their review is especially valuable because it demonstrates that the public sphere literature has not been limited to a single normative claim.Rather, it has developed as a dispersed set of questions about how libraries engage in public life and what kinds of activities count as public-sphere work.”

• cites Vårheim et al., 2019 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable).

The value of the library lies not only in what it lends or teaches but in the social and informational environment it helps sustain.

“The value of the library lies not only in what it lends or teaches but in the social and informational environment it helps sustain.”

May combine two claims.

Aabø and Audunson (2012) show that the library as place cannot be reduced to service consumption, and that public libraries support social activity, cultural participation, personal development and everyday presence.

“Aabø and Audunson (2012) deepen this argument by showing that the library as place cannot be reduced to service consumption.Their study of how library space is actually used demonstrates that public libraries support social activity, cultural participation, personal development and everyday presence.”

• cites Aabø and Audunson, 2012 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Shin et al. (2022) argue that if libraries are to remain relevant under rapidly changing information conditions, they must assess the needs of users and nonusers in relation to services, spaces and expectations.

“Shin et al. (2022) argue that if libraries are to remain relevant under rapidly changing information conditions, they must assess the needs of users and nonusers in relation to services, spaces and expectations.”

• cites Shin et al., 2022Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

May combine two claims.

The issue is no longer only access to books, reference expertise or cultural materials; it is also access to devices, connectivity, digital skills and the increasingly online administrative systems through which people seek work, benefits, information and public services.

“The issue is no longer only access to books, reference expertise or cultural materials.It is also access to devices, connectivity, digital skills and the increasingly online administrative systems through which people seek work, benefits, information and public services.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Public libraries have become central partners in the delivery of e-government services.

“Bertot et al. (2013) argue that public libraries have become central partners in the delivery of e-government services.”

• cites Bertot et al. (2013)Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

May combine two claims.

Public libraries support reading and culture while also offering free access to technology, trustworthy information and skills training.

“Public libraries support reading and culture while also offering free access to technology, trustworthy information and skills training.”

• cites Blanchard et al. (2026) sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

May combine two claims.

The library is not one kind of place; it hosts several layers of publicness simultaneously.

“The library is not one kind of place; it hosts several layers of publicness simultaneously.”

• cites Aabø et al., 2010 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

May combine two claims.

The public library has become an important site where unmet need becomes visible and where some form of initial response is often attempted.

“As more people encounter complex health, housing, immigration and social needs in public settings, the public library has become an important site where unmet need becomes visible and where some form of initial response is often attempted.”

• AssumptionRests on an assumption: People increasingly encounter complex health, housing, immigration and social needs in public settings.

May combine two claims.

The digital inclusion role of public libraries is not a temporary or narrowly American development.

“Recent review work confirms that this is not a temporary or narrowly American development.”

• cites Blanchard et al. (2026) sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

May combine two claims.

Community engagement is not achieved merely by calling the library a community space; it must be built through relationships, responsiveness and institutional practices that residents experience as meaningful.

“Community engagement is not achieved merely by calling the library a community space; it must be built through relationships, responsiveness and institutional practices that residents experience as meaningful.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

Scott (2011) argues that libraries function as conduits for learning, inclusion, civic engagement, access to resources and local economic vitality.

“Scott (2011), from a broader community-building perspective, similarly argues that libraries function as conduits for learning, inclusion, civic engagement, access to resources and local economic vitality.”

• cites Scott, 2011 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

May combine two claims.

Public libraries are modifiable community institutions that influence access to information, social support, programmes and referral.

“Public libraries matter, on this account, not because they are part of the healthcare system in a narrow sense, but because they are modifiable community institutions that influence access to information, social support, programmes and referral.”

• cites Philbin et al. (2019)Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable).

Space, seating, accessibility, openness and atmosphere are not secondary design issues but part of the institutional substance of public library work.

“In practical terms, this means that space, seating, accessibility, openness and atmosphere are not secondary design issues but part of the institutional substance of public library work.”

Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

Public libraries are community-level resources for advancing population health.

“Philbin et al. (2019) take this argument further by conceptualising public libraries as community-level resources for advancing population health.”

• cites Philbin et al. (2019)Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Much of the digital inclusion literature remains better at demonstrating need than at specifying outcomes.

“At the same time, much of this literature remains better at demonstrating need than at specifying outcomes.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S4 (based).

The literature sometimes overstates what libraries do by moving too quickly from institutional presence to broad social outcomes such as cohesion, democracy or wellbeing.

“The literature sometimes overstates what libraries do by moving too quickly from institutional presence to broad social outcomes such as cohesion, democracy or wellbeing.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable).

The public library should be understood as social infrastructure, in the sense developed by Klinenberg (2018), rather than simply as a set of community services.

“These four mechanisms help clarify why the public library should be understood as social infrastructure, in the sense developed by Klinenberg (2018), rather than simply as a set of community services.”

• cites Klinenberg (2018)Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable).

The literature on the community roles of public libraries is richer than a simple service-based understanding of the institution would suggest.

“This article has argued that the literature on the community roles of public libraries is richer than a simple service-based understanding of the institution would suggest.”

May combine two claims.

Mediated capability-building is clearest in the digital inclusion literature, but it also appears in community engagement, immigrant integration and health-related support.

“This is clearest in the digital inclusion literature, but it also appears in community engagement, immigrant integration and health-related support.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable).

The social infrastructure framework helps manage this complexity by providing a single institutional logic for diverse but interrelated functions.

“The social infrastructure framework helps manage this complexity by providing a single institutional logic for diverse but interrelated functions.”