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Cooperation and Commune Longevity: A Test of the Costly Signaling Theory of Religion
Abstract
The costly signaling theory of religion posits that religious rituals and taboos can promote intragroup cooperation, which is argued to be the primary adaptive benefit of religion. To test this theory, the authors collected historical data on the constraints and ritual requirements that eighty-three 19th-century U.S. communes imposed on their members. All communes must solve the collective action problem of cooperative labor to survive; thus, they are an ideal population to assess the impact of ritual and taboo on intragroup cooperation. The authors evaluated whether communes that imposed costlier requirements survived longer than less demanding communes and whether costly requirements and religiosity interact to promote cooperation. The results support aspects of the costly signaling theory of religion and reveal new avenues for its development. The authors discuss some of the shortcomings of the theory and explore ways to expand the theory that incorporate additional features of ritual and religious belief.
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“and historical evidence shows that religious groups that have costly rituals are more successful (Sosis & Bressler, 2003).”
From The Psychology of Rituals: An Integrative Review and Process-Based Framework (2018) · cites this paper as Sosis & Bressler, 2003
In the citing paper
“Empirical evidence for the costly signaling theory includes an analysis of historical communes in the US, which were more likely to survive if they were religious: strict religious communes (with more prohibitions on food, sex, etc.) were more likely to survive than less strict groups (Sosis & Bressler, 2003).”
From The Challenge of Evolution to Religion (2019) · cites this paper as Sosis & Bressler, 2003
In the citing paper
“Sosis and Bressler (2003) found that longevity for religious communes was positively related to the magnitude of the costly acts required for membership within a commune (e.g., restriction from alcohol and sex).”
From Parasite-stress promotes in-group assortative sociality: The cases of strong family ties and heightened religiosity (2012) · cites this paper as Sosis and Bressler 2003
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When Novel Rituals Lead to Intergroup Bias: Evidence From Economic Games and Neurophysiology
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“Moreover, ethnographic evidence suggests that collective rituals are associated with effective group functioning, linking ritual to a group’s ability to withstand social collapse (Sosis & Bressler, 2003; Tuzin, 2001).”
BackgroundBulbulia, J. A. (2012) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/oxfordhb/9780198568308.013.0043 · Cited by 51
The Building Blocks of Religious Systems: Approaching Religion as a Complex Adaptive System
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Self-citationThe Religious System as Adaptive: Cognitive Flexibility, Public Displays, and Acceptance
Purzycki, B. G., & Sosis, R. H. (2009) · The frontiers collection · doi:10.1007/978-3-642-00128-4_17 · Cited by 49
Self-citationShaver, J. H., Power, E. A., Purzycki, B. G., Watts, J., Sear, R., Shenk, M. K., Sosis, R. H., & Bulbulia, J. A. (2020) · Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B Biological Sciences · doi:10.1098/rstb.2019.0428 · Cited by 52
Self-citation(2008) · University of California Press eBooks · doi:10.1525/california/9780520253476.001.0001 · Cited by 48
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“Studies on religiosity show that when denominations maintain stringent requirements for members of their group (e.g., abstention from alcohol, mandatory attendance), individuals adhere to the denomination’s moral code of conduct (Sosis & Bressler, 2003).”
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Slingerland, E., Atkinson, Q. D., Ember, C. R., Sheehan, O., Muthukrishna, M., Bulbulia, J. A., & Gray, R. D. (2020) · Evolutionary Human Sciences · doi:10.1017/ehs.2020.30 · Cited by 46
“…global patterns of post-marital residence and descent, and links between agricultural intensification and changes in gendered work (Allan, 2007; Atkinson & Whitehouse, 2011; Ember & Ember, 1992; Guyer et al., 1988; Johnson & P, 2005; Jordan et al., 2009; Sosis & Bressler, 2003; Watts et al., 2016).”
BackgroundThe moralization bias of gods’ minds: a cross-cultural test
Purzycki, B. G., Willard, A. K., Klocová, E. K., Apicella, C. L., Atkinson, Q. D., Bolyanatz, A., Cohen, E. E. A., Handley, C., Henrich, J., Lang, M., et al. (2022) · Religion Brain & Behavior · doi:10.1080/2153599x.2021.2006291 · Cited by 45
“Whether through ritual (Power, 2017a,b; Soler, 2012; Sosis and Bressler, 2003) or explicit”
BackgroundCross-cultural variation in cooperation: A meta-analysis.
Spadaro, G., Graf, C., Jin, S., Arai, S., Inoue, Y., Lieberman, E., Rinderu, M. I., Yuan, M., Lissa, C. J. V., & Balliet, D. P. (2022) · Journal of Personality and Social Psychology · doi:10.1037/pspi0000389 · Cited by 56
How Does Male Ritual Behavior Vary Across the Lifespan?
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Self-citationThe psychology of rituals: An integrative review and process-based frameworkPreprint
Hobson, N. M., Schroeder, J., Risen, J. L., Xygalatas, D., & Inzlicht, M. (2017) · PsyArXiv (OSF Preprints) · doi:10.31234/osf.io/98v3f · Cited by 46
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“Sosis and colleagues (Sosis, 2000; Sosis & Bressler, 2003; Sosis & Ruffle, 2003) compared religious and secular communes (kibbutzim) in the United States and Israel.”
BackgroundReligiosity and prosocial behavior at national level.
Guo, Q., Liu, Z., & Tian, Q. (2018) · Psychology of Religion and Spirituality · doi:10.1037/rel0000171 · Cited by 47
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Matthews, L. J., Edmonds, J. S., Wildman, W. J., & Nunn, C. L. (2012) · Religion Brain & Behavior · doi:10.1080/2153599x.2012.707388 · Cited by 41
“A number of researchers of the nature and function of religious rituals (Rappaport, 1999; Soler, 2008; Sosis, 2006; Sosis & Bressler, 2003; Sosis & Ruffle, 2003) have argued that some rituals can function to consolidate consensus and group identity, to promote in-group cooperation, to eliminate…”
BackgroundSocial inequality and signaling in a costly ritual
Xygalatas, D., Maňo, P., Bahna, V., Klocová, E. K., Kundt, R., Lang, M., & Shaver, J. H. (2021) · Evolution and Human Behavior · doi:10.1016/j.evolhumbehav.2021.05.006 · Cited by 40
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The Evolution and Ontogeny of Ritual
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Religious Studies as a Life Science
Bulbulia, J. A., Bulbulia, J. A., & Slingerland, E. (2012) · Numen · doi:10.1163/15685276-12341240 · Cited by 39
“He also found that the most costly of the religious communes in his sample were also the most successful (Sosis and Bressler 2003).”
BackgroundWork group rituals enhance the meaning of work
Kim, T., Sezer, O., Schroeder, J., Risen, J. L., Gino, F., & Norton, M. I. (2021) · Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes · doi:10.1016/j.obhdp.2021.05.005 · Cited by 43
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“…behavior return high levels of material benefits in the form of cooperation (e.g., Norenzayan & Shariff, 2008; Ruffle & Sosis, 2007; Soler, 2012; Sosis & Bressler, 2003; Xygalatas, 2012), and it is unlikely that all members of social groups benefit from cooperation equally, especially in highly…”
BackgroundCatholic guilt? Recall of confession promotes prosocial behavior
McKay, R., Herold, J., & Whitehouse, H. (2012) · Religion Brain & Behavior · doi:10.1080/2153599x.2012.739410 · Cited by 42
“Sosis and Ruffle found that religious male kibbutzniks were more cooperative than religious females, secular males, and secular females (males are the primary practitioners of collective religious rituals in Orthodox Judaism). Moreover, the frequency with which religious males engaged in collective religious rituals p…”
BackgroundNiemi, L., & Young, L. (2013) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0081605 · Cited by 37
“physical purity [11].”
Evolutionary, Cognitive, and Contextual Approaches to the Study of Religious Systems
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“For example, there is an ongoing debate whether painful rituals must be legitimized by belief in supernatural agency in order to have the desired effect on group cooperation (Shaver, DiVietro, Lang, & Sosis 2018; Sosis & Bressler 2003).”
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Irons, W. (2004) · Zygon® · doi:10.1111/j.1467-9744.2004.00618.x · Cited by 36
“He found that communes with a religious charter on average four times as long as those based on secular charters 2000; 2003; Sosis and Alcorta 2003; Sosis and Bressler 2003; Sosis research on the evolutionary foundations of religion.”
BackgroundMen are less religious in more gender-equal countries
Moon, J. W., Tratner, A. E., & McDonald, M. M. (2022) · Proceedings of the Royal Society B Biological Sciences · doi:10.1098/rspb.2021.2474 · Cited by 46
“Because religions often involve costly behaviour [69,70], one should expect religious engagement to be more likely when the benefits outweigh the costs.”
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Trkman, P. (2019) · The International Journal of Management Education · doi:10.1016/j.ijme.2019.100310 · Cited by 45
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De Smedt, J., & De Cruz, H. (2019) · Cambridge University Press · doi:10.1017/9781108685436 · Cited by 33
“…for the costly signaling theory includes an analysis of historical communes in the US, which were more likely to survive if they were religious: strict religious communes (with more prohibitions on food, sex, etc.) were more likely to survive than less strict groups (Sosis & Bressler, 2003).”
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Palmer, C. T., Steadman, L. B., Cassidy, C., & Coe, K. (2010) · Zygon® · doi:10.1111/j.1467-9744.2010.01083.x · Cited by 32
Dungan, J. A., Chakroff, A., & Young, L. (2017) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0173405 · Cited by 38
“Purity violators are seen as abnormal [20] and tagging deviant behavior as offensive may help define group norms and establish cultural boundaries [48,49] by increasing behavioral homogeneity [12].”
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Singh, P., Tewari, S., Kesberg, R., Karl, J. A., Bulbulia, J. A., & Fischer, R. D. (2020) · Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B Biological Sciences · doi:10.1098/rstb.2019.0430 · Cited by 32
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“Indeed, studies have shown that religious communities are often more cohesive and enduring than comparable secular ones (Sosis, 2000; Sosis & Bressler, 2003; Sosis & Ruffle, 2003).”
BackgroundOn the evolution of baboon greeting rituals
Pesco, F. D., & Fischer, J. (2020) · Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B Biological Sciences · doi:10.1098/rstb.2019.0420 · Cited by 33
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“…that participation in costly rites is correlated with an individual’s level of cooperation (Ruffle & Sosis, 2007; Sosis, 2000; Sosis & Ruffle, 2003), and that communes with costlier rites tend to exist for a longer period of time than those with less costly rites (Sosis & Bressler, 2003).”
BackgroundRitual well-being: toward a social signaling model of religion and mental health
Wood, C. (2017) · Religion, Brain & Behavior · doi:10.1080/2153599x.2016.1156556 · Cited by 32
“Religious groups demand signals of investment, such as constraining behaviors or rituals (Sosis & Bressler, 2003). a. People who do not pay such entry costs are excluded, resulting in a high average level of commitment among remaining members (Iannaccone, 1994).”
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Asikainen, S. (2018) · Työväentutkimus Vuosikirja · doi:10.1163/9789004361096 · Cited by 30
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“For example, Irons, Sosis, and others (Irons, 1996a, 1996b, 1996c; Sosis & Alcorta, 2003; Sosis & Bressler, 2003) argued that many of the rituals and taboos of religion are hard-to-fake signals of commitment.”
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“Sixth, some empirical evidence suggests that religious beliefs are more effective at suppressing selfish behavior and promoting cooperation than equivalent nonreligious beliefs (e.g., Sosis & Bressler, 2003).”
BackgroundImages from a jointly-arousing collective ritual reveal affective polarization
Bulbulia, J. A., Xygalatas, D., Schjoedt, U., Fondevila, S., Sibley, C. G., & Konvalinka, I. (2013) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2013.00960 · Cited by 29
“Recent studies have quantified enhancements to pro-sociality using historical evidence (Sosis and Bressler, 2003; Atkinson and Whitehouse, 2011) and by comparing responses between a variety of naturally occurring collective ritual practices (Sosis and Ruffle, 2003; Fischer et al.”
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Recruitment to Elective Cults: Network Structure and Ecology
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Religion and Related Morality Across Cultures
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“In addition, participation in religious rituals is a costly signaling behavior, thus a reliable indication that religious practitioners can be trusted; this, in turn, enhances cooperation (Sosis & Bressler, 2003).”
BackgroundReligion, parochialism and intuitive cooperation
İşler, O., Yılmaz, O., & Maule, A. J. (2021) · Nature Human Behaviour · doi:10.1038/s41562-020-01014-3 · Cited by 33
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Buddhism, identity, and class: fairness and favoritism in the Tyva Republic
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“By stabilizing cooperation and norm compliance, both beliefs (Bering, McLeod, & Shackelford, 2005) and ritual behaviors (Sosis & Bressler, 2003; Sosis & Ruffle, 2003) can function to increase the chances of individual survival and reproduction.”
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Schroeder, D. A., Graziano, W. G., Feygina, I., & Henry, P. J. (2014) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/oxfordhb/9780195399813.013.009 · Cited by 33
Examining memory for ritualized gesture in complex causal sequences
Kapitány, R., Kavanagh, C. M., Whitehouse, H., & Nielsen, M. (2018) · Cognition · doi:10.1016/j.cognition.2018.08.005 · Cited by 29
Concept and Method in Cross-Cultural and Cultural Psychology
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“Even though particular religious systems exhibit clear features of adaptive self-organization (e.g., Bird et al., 2013; Lan-sing et al., 2017; Sosis & Bressler, 2003) and many other cases are interpreted as such (e.g., Angsongna et al., 2016; Connors, 2000; Leeson & Suarez, 2015; Rappaport, 1968;…”
BackgroundCulture in Mind – An Enactivist Account
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“For instance, empirical analyses of the longevities of nineteenth-century communes (Sosis & Bressler, 2003) found that, overall, religious communes with more costly constraints are likely to survive longer than secular communes with less costly constraints.”
BackgroundCostly Signaling Theory in Archaeology
Quinn, C. P. (2019) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-3-030-11117-5_14 · Cited by 26
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“If greater costliness of ritual behaviour leads to increased longevity of religious groups [45], perhaps costliness also leads to greater in-group cohesion and out-group biases.”
BackgroundA Natural History of the Drag Queen Phenomenon
Moncrieff, M., & Liénard, P. (2017) · Evolutionary Psychology · doi:10.1177/1474704917707591 · Cited by 25
“Signaling theory has provided a theoretical framework for better explaining evolutionarily puzzling human behaviors (Bird, Smith, & Bird, 2001; Sosis & Bressler, 2003).”
BackgroundAttachment and Cooperation in Religious Groups
Weingarten, C. P., & Chisholm, J. S. (2009) · Current Anthropology · doi:10.1086/605767 · Cited by 25
“While religious practices and beliefs do indeed seem to promote intragroup cooperation (e.g., Shariff and Norenzayan 2007; Soler 2008; Sosis and Bressler 2003; Sosis and Ruffle 2003), this is not a demonstration of group selection, as Weingarten and Chisholm suggest.”
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Stanish, C. S. (2017) · Thammasat University Digital Collections · Cited by 25
Condition-dependent trade-offs maintain honest signalling
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“Experimental, cross-cultural, and ethnohistorical research evaluating this prediction has been largely supportive (Ginges et al., 2009; Ruffl e & Sosis, 2007; Soler, 2008; Sosis & Bressler, 2003; Sosis, Kress, & Boster, 2007; Sosis & Ruffl e, 2003, 2004).”
BackgroundSelf-citationBig questions aboutBig Gods: response and discussion
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“Naturally, such a presumption cannot be merely claimed when the TI is counterfactual, but must also be demonstrated by costly displays (Irons, 1996, 2001; Sosis, 2005; Sosis & Bressler, 2003).”
BackgroundLang, M. (2019) · Archive for the Psychology of Religion · doi:10.1177/0084672419894682 · Cited by 24
“The studies by Sosis and Bressler (2003) and by Shaver, DiVietro, et al. (2018) indicate that while collective rituals (especially in their costly form) contribute to the stabilization of risky collective action, the interaction between collective rituals and belief is even more effective.”
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Dow, J. (2006) · Method & Theory in the Study of Religion · doi:10.1163/157006806776142910 · Cited by 22
“The theory receives strong empirical support in observations that religiously organized groups have better internal cooperation and better success competing with non-religiously organized groups (Sosis and Bressler 2003).”
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“Instead, there have been three relatively distinct evolutionary approaches to religion, each with different assumptions, foci, and methodological preferences (Sosis and Bulbulia 2011; Shaver et al. 2016).”
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Purzycki, B. G., Bendixen, T., Lightner, A. D., & Sosis, R. H. (2022) · Current Research in Ecological and Social Psychology · doi:10.1016/j.cresp.2022.100057 · Cited by 21
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“Some stress the rituals, taboos, communal ceremonies, and feelings of belongingness that religions engender (Ginges et al. 2009; Sosis and Bressler 2003).”
BackgroundWhy and how do religious individuals, and some religious groups, achieve higher relative fertility?
Shaver, J. H. (2017) · Religion Brain & Behavior · doi:10.1080/2153599x.2016.1249920 · Cited by 21
“Though religious groups vary widely in fertility levels (e.g., Blume, 2009), other studies find that religious individuals tend to be more cooperative (Sosis, 2000; Sosis & Bressler, 2003; Sosis & Ruffle, 2003).”
BackgroundDoes it Pay to Pray? Evaluating the Economic Return to Religious RitualPreprint
Ruffle, B. J., & Sosis, R. H. (2003) · SSRN Electronic Journal · doi:10.2139/ssrn.441285 · Cited by 21
Self-citationGendron, M., Mesquita, B., & Barrett, L. F. (2020) · Culture, Mind, and Brain · doi:10.1017/9781108695374.010 · Cited by 20
The evolution of religious misbelief
Norenzayan, A., Shariff, A., & Gervais, W. M. (2009) · Behavioral and Brain Sciences · doi:10.1017/s0140525x09991312 · Cited by 20
Yu, Z., Bali, P., Tsikandilakis, M., & Tong, E. M. W. (2021) · British Journal of Social Psychology · doi:10.1111/bjso.12479 · Cited by 25
Transcendence, religion and social bonding
Dein, S. L. (2020) · Archive for the Psychology of Religion · doi:10.1177/0084672420905018 · Cited by 22
“…may have been responsible for the perceived ability of these ultra-human agents to reward and punish their followers and that this aspect sustained cooperation within growing ancestral populations of genetically unrelated individuals who subsequently became collective kin (Sosis & Bressler, 2003).”
BackgroundWoody, E. Z., & Szechtman, H. (2006) · Behavioral and Brain Sciences · doi:10.1017/s0140525x06009563 · Cited by 21
Volunteering in Religious Congregations and Faith-Based Associations
Cnaan, R. A., Zrinščak, S., Grönlund, H., Smith, D. H., Ming, H. U., Kinoti, M. D., Knorre, B., Kumar, P., & Pessi, A. B. (2016) · Palgrave Macmillan UK eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-1-137-26317-9_23 · Cited by 20
Pro- and Assortative-sociality in the Formation and Maintenance of Religious Groups
Martin, L. H., & Wiebe, D. V. (2015) · Journal for the Cognitive Science of Religion · doi:10.1558/jcsr.v2i1.5 · Cited by 18
“…2008), how much people give, withhold, or steal in economic game experiments (e.g. Cohen et al. 2014; Soler 2012), how long institutions last (e.g. Sosis and Bressler 2003), the relationship between the strength of bond required to achieve something as awful as warfare and how costly a ritual is…”
BackgroundCostly signalling in archaeology: origins, relevance, challenges and prospects
Conolly, J. (2017) · World Archaeology · doi:10.1080/00438243.2017.1401860 · Cited by 19
“A second branch of work examining CST in the context of human behaviour emerged through the 2000s and into the 2010s from the work of Irons (2001), Richard (2003), Richard and Bressler (2003) and Sosis and Alcorta (2003), who examined the application of CST to explain aspects of religious behaviour.”
BackgroundMethodPeering into the Minds of Gods
Bendixen, T., & Purzycki, B. G. (2020) · Journal for the Cognitive Science of Religion · doi:10.1558/jcsr.40951 · Cited by 20
Applying Signaling Theory to Traditional Cultural Rituals
Palmer, C. T., & Pomianek, C. (2007) · Human Nature · doi:10.1007/s12110-007-9020-2 · Cited by 18
What Explains Patrilineal Cooperation?
Strassmann, B. I., & Kurapati, N. T. (2016) · Current Anthropology · doi:10.1086/685762 · Cited by 19
“However, under the influence of Islam, a few men now have four wives (Strassmann 2003).”
BackgroundInfluentialRecruiting Refugees for Militarization: The Determinants of Mobilization Attempts
Haer, R., & Hecker, T. (2018) · Journal of Refugee Studies · doi:10.1093/jrs/fey002 · Cited by 15
“…was initially developed in economics (and is closely related to contract/principal–agent theory), but its applications are found in anthropology (e.g. Sosis and Bressler 2003), political science (e.g. Weinstein 2005), management (e.g. Connelly et al. 2011), and sociology (e.g. Gambetta 2009).”
BackgroundSignaling theories of religion: models and explanation
Brusse, C. (2019) · Religion Brain & Behavior · doi:10.1080/2153599x.2019.1678514 · Cited by 25
“Imperfect congruence at the conceptual or terminological level means that despite promising approaches toward testing ostensive predictions of RST (Power, 2017; Sosis, 2003; Sosis & Bressler, 2003), it is not always clear which theories are being tested and how to tease them apart.”
BackgroundCosts do not Explain Trust among Secular Groups
Shaver, J. H., DiVietro, S., Lang, M., & Sosis, R. H. (2018) · Journal of Cognition and Culture · doi:10.1163/15685373-12340025 · Cited by 17
“…religious belief systems appeal to supernatural ideologies, and the coupling of supernatural beliefs with religious ritual may create a stronger sense of group belonging than rituals based on secular ideologies (Purzycki & Sosis, 2013; Rappaport, 1999; Sosis & Bressler, 2003; Sosis & Ruffle, 2004).”
BackgroundMethodResultInfluentialSelf-citationExistential neuroscience: a proximate explanation of religion as flexible meaning and palliative
Inzlicht, M., Tullett, A. M., & Good, M. (2011) · Religion, Brain & Behavior · doi:10.1080/2153599x.2011.653537 · Cited by 17
Breaches of Trust Change the Content and Structure of Religious Appeals
Purzycki, B. G., Stagnaro, M. N., & Sasaki, J. Y. (2020) · Journal for the Study of Religion Nature and Culture · doi:10.1558/jsrnc.38786 · Cited by 17
“Indeed, many have addressed rituals’ (JohanssonStenman, Mahmud, and Martinsson 2009; Soler 2012; Sosis and Bressler 2003; Power 2017) and beliefs’ (Johnson 2005; Purzycki et al. 2016; Shariff and Norenzayan 2007) contributions to cooperation.”
BackgroundCognitive and Evolutionary Approaches to Religion
Mccauley, R. N. (2016) · Wiley eBooks · doi:10.1002/9781118657775.ch32 · Cited by 16
Culture, Mind, and Brain: Emerging Concepts, Models, and Applications
Kirmayer, L. J., Worthman, C. M., Kitayama, S., Lemelson, R., & Cummings, C. A. (2020) · Cited by 15
Ruse, M. (2022) · doi:10.1093/oso/9780197621288.001.0001 · Cited by 14
Metadata
- Authors
- Sosis, R., & Bressler, E. R.
- Affiliations
- University of Connecticut (US)
- McMaster University (CA)
- ORCID
- Sosis, Richard
- Venue
- Cross-Cultural Research
- Publisher
- SAGE Publications
- Published
- 2003-05
- Volume
- 37
- Issue
- 2
- Pages
- 211-239
- ISSN
- 0094-3673 (ISSN-L)
- 1069-3971
- 1552-3578
- OpenAlex
- W2044683788
- Cited by
- 569
- References
- 74
- Citations by year
- 2026: 9 · 2025: 28 · 2024: 17 · 2023: 21 · 2022: 36 · 2021: 34 · 2020: 64 · 2019: 39 · 2018: 29 · 2017: 34 · 2016: 29 · 2015: 22 · 2014: 23 · 2013: 24 · 2012: 24
- FWCI
- 37.81
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- closed
- Locations
- Cross-Cultural Research (publishedVersion)
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Sociology and Political Science › Evolutionary Game Theory and Cooperation
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Experimental and Cognitive Psychology › Evolutionary Psychology and Human Behavior
- Social Sciences › Arts and Humanities › Philosophy › Violence, Religion, and Philosophy
- Keywords
- religious rituals, taboos, communes, collective action, religious constraints, religious beliefs
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