The Psychology of Rituals: An Integrative Review and Process-Based Framework

Attentional distraction techniques dampened the emotional processing of threatening stimuli.

“In one recent study looking at the brain-mediated regions of elevated anxiety, researchers found that attentional distraction techniques dampened the emotional processing of threatening stimuli (Simon, Adler, Kaufmann, & Kathmann, 2014).”

• cites Simon, Adler, Kaufmann, & Kathmann, 2014 sourceSupported

Repetitive and strenuous ritual actions such as whirling, chanting, dancing, or prostrating seem to produce anxiolytic effects by stimulating the endocannabinoid system.

“For instance, the repetitive and often strenuous actions that are involved in ritual-such as whirling, chanting, dancing, or prostrating-seem to produce anxiolytic effects by stimulating the endocannabinoid system (Dunbar, Kaskatis, MacDonald, & Barra, 2012;Xygalatas, 2008).”

• cites Dunbar, Kaskatis, MacDonald, & Barra, 2012 sourcePartly supported

  The Results and Discussion (page numbers unavailable) link vigorous singing and dancing to increased pain threshold and positive affect, with endorphin release inferred rather than directly confirmed. They do not establish anxiety reduction or study whirling or prostrating; crucially, the proposed mechanism is the endorphin/opioid system, not the endocannabinoid system. (LLM, conf=0.89)

  Experimental — accuracy not yet measured
• cites Xygalatas, 2008Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Communal chanting and dancing can result in increased endorphin production.

“Studies of communal chanting and dancing, elements found in most collective rituals, can result in increased endorphin production (Dunbar et al., 2012;Tarr, Launay, Cohen, & Dunbar, 2015;Tarr, Launay, & Dunbar, 2017)”

• cites Dunbar et al., 2012 sourceSupported
• cites Tarr, Launay, Cohen, & Dunbar, 2015 sourcePartly supported

  The Discussion reports that group dancing elevated pain thresholds and says this suggests activation of the endogenous opioid system. The study did not measure endorphin production directly or investigate chanting; this source supports the dancing component as an inference, not a demonstrated increase in production. (LLM, conf=0.84)

  Experimental — accuracy not yet measured
• cites Tarr, Launay, & Dunbar, 2017Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Two sets of experiments demonstrate that enacting a group ritual can reduce a deficit in affiliation.

“Two sets of experiments, in particular, demonstrate that enacting a group ritual can reduce a deficit in affiliation.”

• cites Rennung & Göritz, 2015 sourcePartly supported

  The Discussion (page not provided) reports that sharing attention to a distressing film clip buffered a reduction in closeness and liking toward other group members. That supports the affiliation-related outcome, but this paper describes one experiment involving shared film viewing, not two sets of experiments in which participants enacted a group ritual. (LLM, conf=0.86)

  Experimental — accuracy not yet measured
• cites Hobson et al., 2017 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Studies that do not directly address the two propositions still provide suggestive evidence that rituals might be functional.

“Although these studies and others do not provide strong evidence for rituals' regulatory functions via cybernetic control processes (i.e., they do not directly address one of our two propositions), we believe they still provide suggestive evidence that rituals might be functional.”

Disparate forms of rituals share common psychological processes.

“As dissimilar as these features appear to be, we argue that disparate forms of rituals share common psychological processes (for similar views, see Dulaney & Fiske, 1994;Lang, Krátký, Shaver, Jerotijević, & Xygalatas, 2015).”

• cites Dulaney & Fiske, 1994 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source
• cites Lang, Krátký, Shaver, Jerotijević, & Xygalatas, 2015 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Many rituals center on themes of cleanliness and purity because they impose order against threatening forces of chaos and disorder.

“This suggests one reason why so many rituals center on themes of cleanliness and purity: They impose order against threatening forces of chaos and disorder.”

This heightened value or meaning communicates a signal to oneself or others that something of significance has been done.

“This heightened value or meaning communicates a clear signal to oneself (self-signaling) or other people (social signaling) that something of significance has been done.”

The integration of bottom-up and top-down information processing can explain the varied psychosocial consequences of ritual.

“Here, we propose that the integration of both bottom-up and top-down information processing can explain the varied psychosocial consequences of ritual.”

• AssumptionRests on an assumption: The elaborate rituals observed in the real world build on basic neurocognitive, affective, and motivational processes.

If rituals function to regulate emotions, performance goal states, and social connections, then experiencing an emotional, goal-driven, or social deficit should elicit more ritualistic behavior.

“Proposition 1: Experiencing an emotional, goal-driven, or social deficit should elicit more ritualistic behavior.”

There is much less known about the psychological and neural bases of ritual than about its social and cultural functions.

“As a result, there is much less known about the psychological and neural bases of ritual, which operate at the level of the individual, compared with what is known about its social and cultural functions, which operate at a societal or group level.”

Performing interpersonal rituals can improve closeness in groups even when group members do not reveal an explicit need for connection or belonging.

“For example, performing interpersonal rituals can improve closeness in groups even when the group members do not reveal any explicit need for connection or belonging (Páez, Basabe, Ubillos, & González-Castro, 2007;Ruffle & Sosis, 2007;Sosis & Ruffle, 2003;Wen, Herrmann, & Legare, 2016).”

• cites Páez, Basabe, Ubillos, & González-Castro, 2007 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source
• cites Ruffle & Sosis, 2007 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source
• cites Sosis & Ruffle, 2003 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

All forms of ritual, no matter how different they appear, result from some combination of bottom-up and top-down psychological processes.

“We intend to show that all forms of ritual, no matter how different they may appear on the surface, are a result of some combination of these bottom-up and top-down psychological processes.”

• AssumptionRests on an assumption: The elaborate rituals observed in the real world build on basic neurocognitive, affective, and motivational processes.
• AssumptionRests on an assumption: Rituals are a universal aspect of human behavior.

Rituals can act as a buffer against the deleterious effects of strong negative emotions.

“Multiple bodies of literature suggest that rituals can act as a buffer against the deleterious effects of strong negative emotions.”

Rituals' diverse functions can be categorized into three regulatory categories: regulation of emotions, performance goal states, and social connection.

“Leveraging this past work, we propose that rituals' diverse functions can be categorized into three regulatory categories.Rituals can regulate (a) emotions, (b) performance goal states, and (c) social connection to others.”

• AssumptionRests on an assumption: The three regulatory functions (emotions, performance goal states, and social connection) are the primary functions of rituals.

Rituals are typically chunked into segmented action units that become sequenced, patterned, and repeated in fixed or bounded ways.

“Unlike other behaviors, rituals are typically chunked into units of segmented action, which then become sequenced, patterned, and repeated in fixed or bounded ways (Boyer & Liénard, 2006;Nielbo & Sørensen, 2011, 2015).”

• cites Boyer & Liénard, 2006 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source
• cites Nielbo & Sørensen, 2011, 2015Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Rituals serve many psychological functions.

“Despite rituals' lack of clear instrumental purpose, it is now well known that rituals serve many psychological functions (e.g., Boyer & Liénard, 2006;Watson-Jones & Legare, 2016).”

• cites Boyer & Liénard, 2006 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source
• cites Watson-Jones & Legare, 2016 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Traditionally, ritual has been studied mainly from broad sociocultural perspectives, with less consideration of individual psychological processes.

“Traditionally, ritual has been studied from broad sociocultural perspectives, with little consideration of the psychological processes at play.”

• Also stated in: § Abstract · plain

  “Ritual has been a popular topic in the social sciences, particularly among cultural anthropologists and sociologists (e.g., Durkheim, 1915;Geertz, 1973;Levi-Strauss, 1955).”

• cites Durkheim, 1915Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

• cites Geertz, 1973Not matched

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• cites Levi-Strauss, 1955 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Enhanced integration distinguishes cultural rituals from ritualized behaviors typical of pathology.

“This enhanced integration distinguishes cultural rituals from, say, the ritualized behaviors typical of pathology.”

There is a common underlying psychological basis that unites all types of ritual.

“Thus, rather than seeing the various expressions of ritual as distinct cultural phenomena merely called by the same name, our framework will allow researchers to think about a common underlying psychological basis that unites all types of ritual.”

• AssumptionRests on an assumption: Rituals are a universal aspect of human behavior.

Each ritual involves varying degrees of bottom-up and top-down processing, rather than a fixed amount in every context.

“Our position is that each ritual will involve varying degrees of bottom-up and top-down processing, rather than a fixed amount in every context.”

• AssumptionRests on an assumption: The elaborate rituals observed in the real world build on basic neurocognitive, affective, and motivational processes.

Ritualized behaviors seem particularly likely to emerge under circumstances characterized by negative emotions such as high anxiety, uncertainty, and stress.

“Ritualized behaviors seem particularly likely to emerge under circumstances characterized by negative emotions such as high anxiety, uncertainty, and stress (Celsi, Rose, & Leigh, 1993;Keinan, 1994;Lang, Krátký, Shaver, Jerotijević, & Xygalatas, 2015;Padgett & Jorgenson, 1982).”

• cites Celsi, Rose, & Leigh, 1993 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source
• cites Keinan, 1994 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source
• cites Lang, Krátký, Shaver, Jerotijević, & Xygalatas, 2015 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

People with clinical disorders associated with anxiety, stress, or trauma often develop their own rituals, presumably as a coping mechanism to regain a sense of personal control.

“People with clinical disorders associated with anxiety, stress, or trauma often develop their own rituals, presumably as a coping mechanism to regain a sense of personal control (e.g., Rachman & Hodgson, 1980).”

• cites Rachman & Hodgson, 1980Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Obsessive-compulsive disorder seems to be characterized by frequently engaging in ritual behaviors to ward off anxious and intrusive thoughts.

“Obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD), in particular, seems to be characterized by frequently engaging in ritual behaviors to ward off anxious and intrusive thoughts (e.g., Mataix-Cols, Rosario-Campos, & Leckman, 2005;Reuven-Magril, Dar, & Liberman, 2008).”

• cites Mataix-Cols, Rosario-Campos, & Leckman, 2005 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source
• cites Reuven-Magril, Dar, & Liberman, 2008 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

The separation of ritual from ordinary behaviors affords it a special status.

“The separation of ritual from other ordinary, more mundane behaviors affords it a special status (Bell, 1997;Berggren & Stutz, 2010).”

• cites Bell, 1997 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source
• cites Berggren & Stutz, 2010 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

If rituals function to regulate emotions, performance goal states, and social connections, then enacting rituals should reduce such deficits.

“Proposition 2: Enacting rituals should thereby reduce such aforementioned deficits.”

Rituals tend to be invariable in their performance, unlike habits or routines.

“In contrast to habits or routines, which may change each time they are performed, rituals tend to be invariable in their performance (Rappaport, 1999;Smith & Stewart, 2011).”

• cites Rappaport, 1999 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source
• cites Smith & Stewart, 2011 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

A meaning appraisal might help regulate emotions by alleviating incidental negative affect and heightening positive, self-transcendent emotions such as awe, contentment, and gratitude.

“A meaning appraisal such as this might help regulate emotions by alleviating incidental negative affect and heightening positive, self-transcendent emotions, such as awe, contentment, and gratitude.”

Attentional demand minimizes anxiety by blocking intrusive thoughts.

“This attentional demand minimizes anxiety by blocking intrusive thoughts (Van Dillen & Koole, 2007).”

• cites Van Dillen & Koole, 2007 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

One mechanism by which performing rituals may regulate emotion is that the act of performance may direct attention away from one's emotions.

“One mechanism by which performing rituals may regulate emotion is that the act of performance may direct attention away from one's emotions.”

Norton and Gino (2014) found that engaging in ritual-labeled behaviors, compared with matched behaviors referred to as random actions, led participants to feel a greater sense of personal control after incurring a major loss.

“Similarly, Norton and Gino (2014) found that engaging in ritual-labeled behaviors (compared with matched behaviors referred to as random actions) led participants to feel a greater sense of personal control after incurring a major loss.”

• cites Norton and Gino, 2014 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Among Israeli women during the 2006 Lebanon War, more frequent psalm recitation was associated with lower anxiety among those in war zones, but not outside war zones.

“They found that among those women who lived in war zones, under threating and uncontrollable conditions, more frequent psalm recitation was associated with lower anxiety levels, whereas that association was not found outside the war zones, where threat levels were lower.”

• cites Sosis and Handwerker, 2011 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

A second bottom-up mechanism by which ritual can regulate emotion is the successful completion of a structured action sequence.

“A second bottom-up mechanism by which ritual can regulate emotion is the successful completion of a structured action sequence.”

In the aforementioned studies, participants were not randomly assigned to have an emotional deficit, leading to many possible interpretations.

“In the aforementioned studies, participants were not randomly assigned to have an emotional deficit, leading to many different possible interpretations of these data.”

Rituals may be meaningful partly because they are seen as ancient and unchanged.

“In other words, rituals may be meaningful partly because they are seen as ancient and unchanged.”

Other populations under intense stress such as abuse victims and palliative care patients often engage in excessive ritualization.

“Other populations under intense stress such as abuse victims (Jacobs, 1989) and palliative care patients (Romanoff & Thompson, 2006) often engage in excessive ritualization as well.”

• cites Jacobs, 1989 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source
• cites Romanoff & Thompson, 2006 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Rituals can serve as a form of distraction, blocking out possible negative thoughts.

“Rituals then can serve as a form of distraction, blocking out possible negative thoughts from entering a person's mind.”

Pregame rituals of athletes have been shown to limit the number of anxious thoughts they experience by directing focus on completion of the ritual sequence.

“As a coping strategy, the pregame rituals of athletes have been shown to limit the number of anxious thoughts they experience by directing their focus on the completion of the ritual sequence instead.”

• cites Foster et al., 2006 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source
• cites Neil, 1982 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Religious rituals are known to be activated during times of anxiety and negative emotion.

“Similar to ritualistic compulsions, religious rituals are known to be activated during times of anxiety and negative emotion (Ahler & Tamney, 1964;Anastasi & Newberg, 2008).”

• cites Ahler & Tamney, 1964 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source
• cites Anastasi & Newberg, 2008 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

At least four studies demonstrate that assigning individuals in emotional distress to do rituals can alleviate their distress.

“Although the majority of the anthropological and clinical research on this topic focuses on when rituals emerge in response to negative affective states, there are at least four studies demonstrating the reverse path: that assigning individuals in emotional distress to do rituals can alleviate their distress.”

Research has shown that the concept of meaningfulness broadens the perceptual scope of time, allowing a person to think about how the present relates to the past and the future.

“Fitting with this explanation, research has shown that the concept of meaningfulness broadens the perceptual scope of time, allowing a person to think about how the present relates to the past and the future (Vallacher & Wegner, 1985).”

• cites Vallacher & Wegner, 1985Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Framing basic actions as ritual can help regulate negative emotion and anxiety at least in part because of a person's belief that rituals have inherent meaning.

“Multiple experiments suggest that framing basic actions as ritual can help regulate negative emotion and anxiety at least in part because of a person's belief that rituals have some inherent meaning.”

Catholic college students randomly assigned to recite the Rosary experienced greater reduction in anxiety than those assigned to watch a religious video.

“Second, Anastasi and Newberg (2008) measured Catholic college students' anxiety before and after a stressful experience and found that those randomly assigned to recite the Rosary, a Catholic set of prayers, experienced greater reduction in anxiety than those assigned to watch a religious video.”

• cites Anastasi and Newberg, 2008 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

The paradoxical consequences of OCD-temporary relief from anxiety and ironic rebound of returning anxiety-suggest that attentional distraction could be detrimental in the long run.

“At the same time, however, the paradoxical consequences of OCD-temporary relief from anxiety and the ironic rebound of returning anxiety-suggest that attentional distraction could be detrimental in the long run.”

The effect of ritual on anxiety was significantly stronger when participants were induced to feel high anxiety than when they were induced to feel low anxiety.

“Most interesting, the effect of ritual on anxiety was significantly stronger when participants were induced to feel high anxiety than when they were induced to feel low anxiety (Study 2, Brooks et al., 2016).”

• cites Brooks et al., 2016 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

These types of appraisals during a ritual's performance provide people with a sense of comfort because doing the practice reminds them that they belong to something bigger than themselves.

“These types of appraisals during a ritual's performance provide people with a sense of comfort because doing the practice reminds them that they belong to something that is bigger than themselves (e.g., a group, a belief system, the universe).”

A large survey of Israeli citizens found that those residing in areas exposed to missile attack during the Gulf War were more likely to engage in magical thinking and religious rites than those in areas not exposed.

“Particularly compelling, a large survey sample of Israeli citizens demonstrated that those who happened to reside in areas exposed to missile attack during the Gulf War were more likely to engage in magical thinking and religious rites than those who resided in areas not exposed to attack (Keinan, 1994).”

• cites Keinan, 1994 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

The first way rituals may assist in regulating emotions is through the positive feeling of having completed a practice understood to be ritual.

“The first way that rituals may assist in regulating emotions is through the positive feeling of having completed a practice understood to be ritual.”

During a ritual, focusing on the series of action sequences directs a person's attention to specific motions and sensory experiences.

“During the performance of a ritual, focusing on the series of action sequences will direct a person's attention to the specific motions and sensory experiences.”

Participants induced to lack control were more likely to develop superstitions and engage in superstitious reasoning.

“Across multiple experiments, participants who were induced to lack control were more likely to develop superstitions and engage in superstitious reasoning, a style of thinking that is often coupled with rituals.”

• cites Whitson and Galinsky, 2008 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

The motor control required of ritual's physical actions may regulate emotions through the physical completion of the ordered movements themselves.

“The motor control required of ritual's physical actions may also regulate emotions simply through the physical completion of the ordered movements themselves.”

Meaningful appraisals of rituals may at least partly derive from their historical elements, where certain practices are seen as belonging to past tradition or one's ancestry.

“Meaningful appraisals of rituals may at least partly derive from their historical elements, where certain practices are seen as belonging to past tradition or one's ancestry.”

The successful completion of a ritual acts as a signal to the self of one's control over a situation.

“The successful completion of a ritual acts as a signal to the self of one's control over a situation.”

Completing action sequences that are structured and strenuous may explain ritual's influence on emotion regulation.

“Completing action sequences that are not only structured but also strenuous may explain ritual's influence on emotion regulation.”

Individuals who performed rituals to manage their grief felt less sad and more in control than individuals who did not perform rituals.

“Finally, Norton and Gino (2014) demonstrated that individuals who performed rituals to manage their grief felt less sad, and more in control, than individuals who did not perform rituals.”

• cites Norton and Gino, 2014 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Whitson and Galinsky found that when people's need for order is disrupted, they tend to compensate by seeking out illusory patterns of coherence and connection.

“First, in a nonclinical population, Whitson and Galinsky (2008) found that when people's need for order is disrupted, they tend to compensate by seeking out illusory patterns of coherence and connection.”

• cites Whitson and Galinsky, 2008 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Preparation rituals can improve goal-driven performance.

“First, preparation rituals can improve goal-driven performance (Cohn et al., 1990;Foster et al., 2006;Weinberg, Gould, & Jackson, 1979);”

• cites Cohn et al., 1990 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source
• cites Foster et al., 2006 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source
• cites Weinberg, Gould, & Jackson, 1979 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Research on superstitious behaviors shows that when people engage in avoidant rituals, such as knocking down on wood, they worry less about a possible jinxed outcome, compared with when they knock up on wood.

“Research on superstitious behaviors shows that when people engage in avoidant rituals, such as knocking down on wood (i.e., pushing away from oneself), they worry less about a possible jinxed outcome, compared with when they knock up on wood (i.e., pulling in toward oneself).”

• cites Zhang, Risen, & Hosey, 2014 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Rituals appear to play an important role in preparing a person for a context that is motivationally relevant.

“In this way, rituals appear to play an important role in preparing a person for a context that is motivationally relevant, such as when athletes engage in preperformance rituals to prepare for a game, students use study rituals to prepare for an exam, or people ceremoniously complete a morning tea ritual to prepare for the workday.”

• AssumptionRests on an assumption: Across domains, important events are often preceded or marked by the presence of rituals.

During the enactment of a single ritual, a person may be regulating both his or her emotions and performance goal states.

“During the enactment of a single ritual, such as when an athlete prepares for a stressful performance event, a person may be regulating both his or her emotions and performance goal states.”

Rituals tend to lead to increased involvement, either in subsequent acts that are temporally or conceptually linked to the ritual behavior, or to the ritual act itself.

“As a result, they tend to lead to increased involvement, either in subsequent acts that are temporally or conceptually linked to the ritual behavior, or to the ritual act itself (van der Hart, 1983).”

• cites van der Hart, 1983Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

The goal-regulatory process can also be achieved on a more implicit level.

“This goal-regulatory process can also be achieved on a more implicit level (Koole, McCullough, Kuhl, & Roelofsma, 2010).”

• cites Koole, McCullough, Kuhl, & Roelofsma, 2010 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

At the heart of most rituals is outward physical movement-the expression of abstract beliefs through concrete action.

“At the heart of most rituals is outward physical movement-the expression of abstract beliefs through concrete action (Geertz, 1973).”

• cites Geertz, 1973Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Ritual's physical features may contribute to goal pursuit through the embodiment of different regulatory states.

“A second way that ritual's physical features may contribute to goal pursuit is through the embodiment of different regulatory states.”

The perceived efficacy of rituals is determined by their physical and motoric features, such as the level of repetition and sequencing of movement.

“Indeed, the perceived efficacy of rituals is determined by their physical and motoric features, such as the level of repetition and sequencing of movement (e.g., Legare & Souza, 2012, 2014).”

• cites Legare & Souza, 2012, 2014Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Classical Confucian philosophy places considerable emphasis on ritual through goal-directed action and the internalization of values.

“Third, this notion is also reflected in classical Confucian philosophy, which places considerable emphasis on ritual through goal-directed action and the internalization of values (e.g., Ivanhoe, 2007;Sarkissian, 2010;Slingerland, 2015).”

• cites Ivanhoe, 2007 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source
• cites Sarkissian, 2010Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

• cites Slingerland, 2015Not matched

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Taking a slumped posture can lead a person to adopt a defeatist and helpless attitude, compared with taking an upright posture.

“where, for example, taking a slumped posture (i.e., avoidance-motivated stance) can lead a person to adopt a defeatist and helpless attitude, compared with when taking an upright posture (i.e., approach-motivated stance; Riskind, 1984;Riskind & Gotay, 1982).”

• cites Riskind, 1984 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source
• cites Riskind & Gotay, 1982 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

This effect was demonstrated across multiple self-control domains (e.g., eating healthy and being prosocial).

“This effect was demonstrated across multiple self-control domains (e.g., eating healthy and being prosocial).”

• cites Tian et al., 2017Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Different rituals for different situations have varying actions reflecting the motivational demands required to successfully complete a goal.

“There are different rituals for different situations, the varying actions reflecting the motivational demands required to successfully complete a goal.”

Fixated ritual behaviors are reminiscent of different pathological conditions such as OCD.

“Indeed, such fixated behaviors are reminiscent of different pathological conditions such as OCD (e.g., Jung & Dell, 1940).”

• cites Jung & Dell, 1940 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

The association between cardiac physiology and heightened attention suggests that extreme, even painful, rituals are particularly effective at honing attention to the situation revolving around the event.

“Moreover, the association between cardiac physiology and heightened attention (e.g., Porges, 1992;Porges & Raskin, 1969) suggests that extreme, even painful, rituals are particularly effective at honing attention to the situation revolving around the event.”

• cites Porges, 1992 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source
• cites Porges & Raskin, 1969 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Rituals can regulate goal-directed behavior by heightening attention to the goal context through the experience of segmented, repetitive actions.

“One way that rituals can regulate goal-directed behavior is by heightening attention to the goal context through the experience of segmented, repetitive actions.”

Successful ritual experience generates incidental feelings of personal efficacy and confidence.

“This successful ritual experience, in turn, generates incidental feelings of personal efficacy and confidence.”

Hamerman and Morewedge (2015) found that individuals who naturally have lower performance orientation or those primed to pursue performance goals exhibit more superstitious behavior, compared with those with higher performance orientation or primed to pursue learning goals.

“Hamerman and Morewedge (2015) provide one of the most direct tests of this proposition; in a series of studies, they demonstrate that individuals who naturally have lower level of performance orientation or those primed to pursue performance goals exhibit more superstitious behavior, compared with those with higher performance orientation or primed to pursue learning goals.”

• cites Hamerman and Morewedge, 2015 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Rituals may be particularly good at directing attention because they are inherently compelling and attention grabbing.

“Rituals may be particularly good at directing attention because they are inherently compelling and attention grabbing.”

Comparing wedding versus funeral rituals, the physical movements reflect underlying motivational dynamics.

“Comparing the ritual traditions of weddings versus funerals, which convey either extreme joy or sorrow, it is clear that the physical movements reflect these underlying motivational dynamics.”

• AssumptionRests on an assumption: Movements in wedding rituals are quick, light, and vivacious, whereas in funerals they are typically slow, heavy, and burdensome.

Rituals provide comfort to a person by allowing them to escape their present self, making anxieties seem fleeting and more manageable.

“They provide comfort to a person by allowing them to escape their present self, making anxieties seem fleeting and more manageable.”

Rituals can spur motivated behaviors that have personal relevance.

“Rituals can spur motivated behaviors that have personal relevance.”

The physical action parsing that happens during rituals is effective at drawing attention either to the ritual actions themselves or to the motivated behavior that follows, resulting in feelings of heightened involvement.

“This suggests that the physical action parsing that happens during rituals is effective at drawing attention either to the ritual actions themselves or to the motivated behavior that follows, resulting in feelings of heightened involvement.”

Rituals can be thought of as vehicles of meaning.

“From this, rituals can be thought of as vehicles of meaning.”

The approach/avoid distinction is expressed in offensive versus defensive movements in rituals, particularly in performance domains such as athletics and the military.

“When applied to rituals, we can see the approach/avoid distinction expressed in offensive versus defensive movements, particularly in performance domains such as athletics and the military.”

East Asians from highly ritualized Confucian cultures have improved self-regulation compared with people from Western cultures, who are less ritualized.

“For example, there is evidence suggesting that East Asians from highly ritualized Confucian cultures have improved self-regulation compared with people from Western cultures, who are less ritualized (Butler, Lee, & Gross, 2007;Sarkissian, 2014;Seeley & Gardner, 2003).”

• cites Butler, Lee, & Gross, 2007 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source
• cites Sarkissian, 2014 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source
• cites Seeley & Gardner, 2003 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Rituals may serve the fundamental psychological function of minimizing regulatory deficits and aligning a person with focal goals.

“We suggest that rituals may serve this fundamental psychological function by minimizing these regulatory deficits and aligning a person with focal goals.”

• AssumptionRests on an assumption: Ritual practitioners often explicitly and deliberately bring to mind an ideal goal state and compare their current state with the desired outcome.

When consuming food, the rigidity and repetition of a ritual in preparing to eat draws attention to the food item, thereby increasing motivation toward the end goal of savoring the food.

“This suggests that when consuming food (a type of goal-directed process), the rigidity and repetition of a ritual in preparing to eat draws the attention to the food item, thereby increasing motivation toward the end goal: in this case, to savor the food being consumed.”

In goal regulation, the function of a ritual is to focus on goal-related states.

“Whereas in the first function, rituals buffer negative states via distraction, here, the function of a ritual is to focus on goal-related states.”

This regulatory process, both explicit and implicit, is frequently found in performance domains where rituals are enacted to achieve a desired level of optimal performance.

“This regulatory process, both explicit and implicit, is frequently found in performance domains where rituals are enacted to achieve a desired level of optimal performance.”

The physical differences in ritual styles may be predicted by the motivational context in which the ritual is being done.

“That is, the physical differences in ritual styles may be predicted by the motivational context in which the ritual is being done.”

Ritual's appraisals and narratives regulate goal states through the successful completion of a meaningful personal practice understood to be ritual.

“Ritual's appraisals and narratives regulate goal states through the successful completion of a meaningful personal practice understood to be ritual.”

Differences in ritual movements are a built-in regulatory function of ritual.

“Our account sees these sorts of differences as a built-in regulatory function of ritual.”

The more people devote time to thinking about the past and future, the more meaning they attribute to their life in general.

“The more people devote time to thinking about the past and future, the more meaning they attribute to their life in general (Baumeister, Vohs, Aaker, & Garbinsky, 2013).”

• cites Baumeister, Vohs, Aaker, & Garbinsky, 2013 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Vohs, Wang, Gino, and Norton (2013) found that performing rituals, compared with performing other acts, enhanced the eating experience by heightening the performers' perceived involvement in consumption.

“For instance, one set of experiments found that performing rituals, compared with performing other acts, enhanced the eating experience by heightening the performers' perceived involvement in consumption (Vohs, Wang, Gino, & Norton, 2013).”

• cites Vohs, Wang, Gino, & Norton, 2013 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Rituals increase people's ability to successfully pursue self-control goals.

“Second, outside performance contexts, one set of experiments found that rituals increase people's ability to successfully pursue self-control goals.”

• cites Tian et al., 2017Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

The regular practice of effortful religious rituals signals personal commitment and builds implicit self-control over time, promoting adaptive behaviors that enhance health and well-being.

“The regular practice of effortful religious rituals signals personal commitment and builds implicit selfcontrol over time, promoting adaptive behaviors that enhance health and well-being (Whitehouse, 2002;Wood, 2016).”

• cites Whitehouse, 2002 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source
• cites Wood, 2016 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

A second process by which performing group rituals may enhance social functioning is through coordination of movement, specifically behaviors similar in form and matched in time with others.

“Thus, a second process by which performing group rituals may enhance social functioning is through the coordination of movement, in particular engaging in behaviors that are similar in form and matched in time with others.”

Kibbutz members who more frequently engaged in communal religious rituals were more cooperative in a public goods game with other kibbutz members.

“and kibbutz members who more frequently engaged in communal religious rituals were more cooperative in a public goods game with other kibbutz members (Ruffle & Sosis, 2007;Sosis & Ruffle, 2003).”

• cites Ruffle & Sosis, 2007 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source
• cites Sosis & Ruffle, 2003 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Individuals who learned novel rituals reported less bias against outgroup members with the same ritual, but only when the ritual was sufficiently elaborate.

“In the second, individuals who learned novel rituals reported less bias against outgroup members with the same ritual, but only when the ritual was sufficiently elaborate (Hobson et al., 2017).”

• cites Hobson et al., 2017 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Children in an afterschool program who were led to engage in a necklace beading ritual reported more ingroup affiliation than those who engaged in the same group activity without the ritual.

“Children in an afterschool program who were led to engage in a necklace beading ritual reported more ingroup affiliation than those who engaged in the same group activity without the ritual (Wen et al., 2016).”

• cites Wen et al., 2016 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Perceived knowledge of shared attentional states causes elaborative processing of a jointly attended sensorimotor stimulus.

“In other words, the perceived knowledge of shared attentional states causes elaborative processing of a jointly attended sensorimotor stimulus.”

One mechanism by which engaging in group rituals may regulate an individual's connection to the group is through shared attention.

“One mechanism by which engaging in group rituals may regulate an individual's connection to the group is through shared attention.”

Shared performance can create a stronger feeling of connection to others.

“In such a way, shared performance can create a stronger feeling of connection to others.”

Other people who are part of a ritual may become more meaningful because the meaning or value inherent to the ritual is extended to them.

“In the case of ritual, just as an activity or goal can become more meaningful because it is incorporated into a ritual (Kapitány & Nielsen, 2015), we suggest that other people who are part of the ritual may also become more meaningful.”

• cites Kapitány & Nielsen, 2015 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

People who walked together in the Tamborrada ritual in Spain reported more group belonging and social integration after the event than before.

“For example, people who walked together in the Tamborrada ritual in Spain reported more group belonging and social integration after the event than before (Páez et al., 2015).”

• cites Páez et al., 2015Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Success on the ritual can signal a likelihood of future goal success.

“In either case, success on the ritual can signal a likelihood of future goal success.”

Experimental manipulations of synchrony increase affiliation, compassion, cooperation, and team performance, especially when synchrony is part of the goal.

“Experimental manipulations of synchrony-from finger tapping to full-body marching and stomping-have been shown to increase affiliation (Hove & Risen, 2009), compassion (Valdesolo & DeSteno, 2011), cooperation (Wiltermuth & Heath, 2009), and team performance (Davis, Taylor, & Cohen, 2015), especially when synchrony is part of the goal (Reddish, Fischer, & Bulbulia, 2013).”

• cites Hove & Risen, 2009 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source
• cites Valdesolo & DeSteno, 2011 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source
• cites Wiltermuth & Heath, 2009 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Group rituals involving pain are particularly effective at coordinating shared attention/affect because the pain experienced by one person is also experienced and shared by others in the group.

“These types of group rituals are particularly effective at coordinating shared attention/affect simply because the pain experienced by one person is also being experienced, and therefore shared, by others in the group.”

Rites of passage require a young person to observe the ceremony for a number of years before formally becoming a performer.

“Indeed, this distinction is played out in real-life rituals such as rites of passage, in which a young person is first required to observe the ceremony for a number of years before formally becoming a performer, usually as an initiate at a certain age of maturity (Turner, 1987;Van Gennep, 1909).”

• cites Turner, 1987Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

• cites Van Gennep, 1909Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Watson-Jones, Whitehouse, and Legare (2015) found that children who are ostracized, compared with those who are socially included, are more likely to imitate the ritual-like actions of other ingroup members.

“In one study offering supportive evidence, Watson-Jones, Whitehouse, and Legare (2015) found that children who are ostracized, compared with those who are socially included, are more likely to imitate the ritual-like actions of other ingroup members.”

• cites Watson-Jones, Whitehouse, and Legare, 2015 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Students who participated together in secular ritual protests following bomb attacks reported more perceived social support than those who did not demonstrate.

“For example, students who participated together in secular ritual protests following a series of bomb attacks reported more perceived social support than those who did not demonstrate (Páez et al., 2007),”

• cites Páez et al., 2007Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Group rituals involving more synchronous body movements are associated with more trust, cooperation, and feelings of oneness than other group rituals.

“Group rituals that involve more synchronous body movements are associated with more trust, cooperation, and feelings of oneness than are other group rituals (Fischer et al., 2013).”

• cites Fischer et al., 2013 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Participating in collective rituals, especially attention-grabbing ones involving increased effort or pain, can create shared intense emotional experiences and make a person feel closer to other group members.

“Thus, participating in collective rituals, especially those that are attention grabbing and involve increased effort or pain, can create shared intense emotional experiences among participants, and as a result, can make a person feel closer to other group members.”

The more value a goal has, the more likely it is to be intrinsically pursued and met.

“The more value a goal has, the more likely it is to be intrinsically pursued and met (Eccles & Wigfield, 2002).”

• cites Eccles & Wigfield, 2002 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Even the most basic ritual actions are judged as more meaningful compared with nonritual actions.

“Because even the most basic ritual actions are judged as more meaningful compared with nonritual actions (Kapitány & Nielsen, 2015, 2016), it is reasonable that completing a ritual transfers meaning and increases the value of the associated goal.”

• cites Kapitány & Nielsen, 2015, 2016Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

People expressed stronger feelings of fusion with their group after participating in a group walking ritual, mediated by perceived emotional synchrony with other walkers.

“For example, research found that people expressed stronger feelings of fusion with their group after participating in a group walking ritual, and this was mediated by the extent to which they perceived emotional synchrony with other walkers (Páez et al., 2015).”

• cites Páez et al., 2015Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Observing a group ritual helps a person learn and share cultural knowledge related to the social norms most important to the group.

“Second, observing a group ritual helps a person learn and share cultural knowledge related to the social norms most important to the group.”

A host of empirical studies have provided evidence linking group rituals to positive social outcomes, such as cooperation, social cohesion, and perceived social support.

“Since then, a host of empirical studies have provided evidence linking group rituals to positive social outcomes, such as cooperation, social cohesion, and perceived social support (Fischer, Callander, Reddish, & Bulbulia, 2013;Hopkins et al., 2015;Páez et al., 2007;Páez, Rimé, Basabe, Wlodarczyk, & Zumeta, 2015;Ruffle & Sosis, 2007;Sosis & Ruffle, 2003).”

• cites Fischer, Callander, Reddish, & Bulbulia, 2013 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source
• cites Hopkins et al., 2015Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

• cites Páez et al., 2007Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

This information can be used to draw inferences about participants and their relationship to the group, such as whether they are trustworthy and loyal members.

“This, in turn, regulates social states, as the information can be used to draw inferences about participants and their relationship to the group, such as whether they are trustworthy and loyal members.”

There is ample evidence that feelings toward one stimulus are transferred, extended, or misattributed to other related ones.

“There is ample evidence in the psychological literature for feelings toward one stimulus being transferred, extended, or misattributed to other related ones (see, for example, Schwarz & Clore, 1983).”

• cites Schwarz & Clore, 1983 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Even novel rituals introduced by an experimenter have been shown to promote affiliation.

“Indeed, even novel rituals introduced by an experimenter have been shown to promote affiliation.”

• cites Wen et al., 2016 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

The successful completion of a ritual before an important task signals to an individual that he or she is competent and capable of being successful on the ensuing task.

“In other words, the successful completion of a ritual before an important task has the function of signaling to an individual that he or she is competent and capable of being successful on the ensuing task (for a general account of self-signaling on action and decision making, see Bodner & Prelec, 2003).”

• cites Bodner & Prelec, 2003 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

The pain experienced during extreme rituals may focus people's attention toward the painful stimulus or the sensation of pain itself.

“The pain experienced during extreme rituals may focus people's attention toward the painful stimulus or to the sensation of pain itself.”

Longitudinal and experimental designs provide more convincing support for the notion that engaging in collective rituals helps a person affiliate with fellow group members.

“Longitudinal and experimental designs, however, provide more convincing support for the notion that engaging in collective rituals helps a person affiliate with fellow group members.”

By engaging in a group ritual, an individual can show that they are part of the group.

“By engaging in a group ritual, an individual can show that they are part of the group.”

Rituals instill a sense of personal mastery by fulfilling competence motivation.

“The processing is similar to the previous function of regulating emotion, but instead of generating feelings of order or control, here rituals instill a sense of personal mastery by fulfilling competence motivation (White, 1959).”

• cites White, 1959 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

The process of ritual and boosted goal regulation is similar to goal internalization.

“The process of ritual and boosted goal regulation is perhaps similar to what happens during goal internalization, where a person integrates regulatory action, making goals more personally valuable, and thus, pursued through intrinsic and self-determined drives (Deci & Ryan, 1985;Grolnick, Gurland, Jacob, & Decourcey, 2002;Ryan & Deci, 2000).”

• cites Deci & Ryan, 1985 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source
• cites Grolnick, Gurland, Jacob, & Decourcey, 2002Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

• cites Ryan & Deci, 2000 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

The successful completion of a personally relevant ritual imbues the goal with more meaning.

“The successful completion of a personally relevant ritual also imbues the goal with more meaning.”

Such knowledge acts as a reliable and credible cue that can foster group cohesion through identity and status formation.

“Such knowledge acts as a reliable and credible cue that can foster group cohesion through identity and status formation (Henrich, 2009).”

• cites Henrich, 2009 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Historical evidence shows that religious groups that have costly rituals are more successful.

“and historical evidence shows that religious groups that have costly rituals are more successful (Sosis & Bressler, 2003).”

• cites Sosis & Bressler, 2003 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Collective rituals may shape bottom-up processing not only by capturing joint attention but also through shared physical action.

“Collective rituals may not only shape bottom-up processing by capturing joint attention, but also through shared physical action.”

Ritualistic imitation of noninstrumental behavior reliably emerges to fulfill social needs, whether to enforce social norms or increase felt belonging.

“Taken together, this evidence suggests that ritualistic imitation of noninstrumental behavior reliably emerges to fulfill social needs, whether to enforce social norms or increase felt belonging.”

Focused attention swamps a person's executive systems, leaving little room for personal improvisation or alteration.

“One consequence of this is that focused attention swamps a person's executive systems, leaving little room for personal improvisation or alteration.”

Engaging with certain physical actions prepares learners to encode and imitate action sequences.

“A second bottom-up explanation accounting for ritual's role in cultural learning is how engaging with certain physical actions prepares learners to encode and imitate the action sequences.”

Ritual reduces affiliative deficits.

“Proposition 2: Ritual reduces affiliative deficits.”

While observing the performance of a ritual, one will make inferences related to the intentions of the actor(s).

“While observing the performance of a ritual, one will make inferences related to the intentions of the actor(s).”

Cues of social intention are even more important to an observer when the behavior being observed is ambiguous in its purpose.

“Cues of social intention in such cases are even more important to an observer (usually a child or new initiate) when the behavior being observed is ambiguous in its purpose (Legare, Wen, Herrmann, & Whitehouse, 2015).”

• cites Legare, Wen, Herrmann, & Whitehouse, 2015 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Unlike instrumental or functional behaviors, often the goal of ritual is merely the correct execution of the actions themselves.

“Indeed, unlike instrumental or functional behaviors, often the goal of ritual is merely the correct execution of the actions themselves (Rossano, 2012).”

• cites Rossano, 2012 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

The processing involved during the successful completion of a ritual is likely to involve top-down psychological inputs as well.

“But it is important to note that the processing involved during the successful completion of a ritual is likely to involve top-down psychological inputs as well.”

Ritual can be considered a combination of both bottom-up and top-down processing.

“Instead, ritual can be considered a combination of both bottom-up and top-down processing.”

According to our framework, all forms of ritual derive from an assorted combination of bottom-up (sensorimotor) and top-down (conceptual) mental processing related to its physical and psychological features.

“According to our framework, all forms of ritual derive from an assorted combination of bottom-up (sensorimotor) and top-down (conceptual) mental processing related to its physical and psychological features, respectively.”

A bottom-up mechanism for why rituals facilitate emotion regulation is that their successful completion satisfies a fundamental need for order.

“For instance, we proposed that a bottom-up mechanism for why rituals facilitate emotion regulation is that their successful completion satisfies a fundamental need for order.”

Children with autism tend not to copy the specific style with which a model performs an action.

“Finally, children with autism, who may lack a strong social motivation to be like others, tend not to copy the specific style with which a model performs an action (Hobson & Hobson, 2008).”

• cites Hobson & Hobson, 2008 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

The mechanism explaining how heightened attention during ritual contributes to effective goal pursuit can also be understood in a social context with collective rituals.

“The mechanism explaining how heightened attention during ritual contributes to effective goal pursuit can also be understood in a social context with collective rituals.”

Children imitated actions most faithfully if the actions were performed synchronously and framed as a matter of convention as opposed to outcome based, indicating greater learning for more ritualistic actions.

“In one study, children imitated actions most faithfully if the actions were performed synchronously and framed as a matter of convention as opposed to outcome based, indicating greater learning for more ritualistic actions (i.e., synchronous and symbolic acts; Herrmann et al., 2013).”

• cites Herrmann et al., 2013 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

As long as a shared ritual remains a fixed set of sequences done in the exact same way as previous instances, the properties of the ritual experience encoded and later retrieved will remain relatively unchanged.

“As long as a shared ritual remains a fixed set of sequences, done in the exact same way as in previous instances (Rappaport, 1999), then the properties of the ritual experience that are encoded (and later retrieved) will remain relatively unchanged.”

• cites Rappaport, 1999 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Citing a prayer in a religious ritual will prime a person in a manner consistent with the norms of that religious group, placing meaning onto both the norms and the group.

“Citing a prayer in a religious ritual, for example, will prime a person in a manner consistent with the norms of that religious group, placing meaning onto both the norms and the group.”

The framework is open to overlap occurring across the three regulatory functions.

“First, our framework is open to overlap occurring across the three regulatory functions.”

Engaging in ritualistic behavior should regulate deficits in cultural learning or affiliation.

“The second primary prediction that derives from the cybernetic control model is that engaging in ritualistic behavior should regulate deficits in cultural learning or affiliation.”

Given the symbolism and lack of causality inherent in rituals, these behaviors signal that something important and meaningful is being done.

“Given the symbolism and lack of causality inherent in rituals, these behaviors signal that something important and meaningful is being done.”

At least two studies provide weak evidence that more ritualistic behavior can improve cultural learning, though they do not measure cultural learning per se.

“At least two studies provide weak evidence for this proposition, suggesting that more ritualistic behavior can improve cultural learning, though they do not measure cultural learning per se.”

Cultural learning is maintained through ritual because meaning is transferred back onto the norms through frequent performance.

“Second, we suggest that cultural learning is maintained through ritual because meaning is transferred back onto the norms through frequent performance.”

Both the functions of ritual that the framework addresses and its psychological mechanisms involve overlapping categories.

“A primary area of complexity is that both the functions of ritual that we address and its psychological mechanisms involve overlapping categories.”

Ritualistic behavior (overimitation of noninstrumental actions) is more likely to emerge when the observer's need for social connection is higher.

“There is strong evidence that ritualistic behavior, in this case the overimitation of noninstrumental actions demonstrated by others, is more likely to emerge when the observer's need for social connection is higher.”

In a situation where a ritual is actually being enacted, contextual and social cues given by actors act as a signal to the child that the behavior is a matter of convention and is to be engaged in ritualistically.

“In this type of situation where a ritual is actually being enacted, the contextual and social cues given by the actors, or parents, act as a signal to the child that this behavior is a matter of convention, and thus, is to be engaged in ritualistically (i.e., with greater meaning).”

Both children and adults engage in more ritualistic imitation when the model is an adult, perhaps because social pressure is higher.

“Both children and adults engage in more ritualistic imitation when the model is an adult, perhaps because social pressure is higher (McGuigan, Makinson, & Whiten, 2011).”

• cites McGuigan, Makinson, & Whiten, 2011 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

In adulthood, inferring social intention during ritual leads to more complex cognitive appraisals that lead to the maintenance and transmission of norms.

“In adulthood, inferring social intention during ritual leads to more complex cognitive appraisals that lead to the maintenance and transmission of norms.”

Because of their rigid patterning and segmentation, rituals are more easily remembered and copied compared with nonritual behaviors.

“Simply put, because of their rigid patterning and segmentation, rituals are more easily remembered and copied compared with nonritual behaviors.”

Rituals judged to be more sacred or meaningful are associated with more cooperation and feelings of oneness than other group rituals.

“Supporting this, research has shown that rituals that are judged to be more sacred or meaningful are associated with more cooperation and feelings of oneness than are other group rituals (Fischer et al., 2013).”

• cites Fischer et al., 2013 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

The motoric features that distinguish rituals from other behaviors, namely noninstrumental and rigid sequencing, help orient attention to the ritual and/or surrounding context.

“As explained in the previous sections, the motoric features that distinguish rituals from other behaviors, namely, noninstrumental and rigid sequencing, help orient attention to the ritual and/or surrounding context.”

With greater sense of collective purpose, a person will be motivated to continue to share and transmit the group's ritual practices.

“With greater sense of collective purpose, a person will be motivated to continue to share and transmit the group's ritual practices.”

Objects are evaluated as more special and desirable when subjected to noninstrumental ritual-like actions compared with instrumental control actions.

“When a person observes an actor interacting with physical objects, those objects are evaluated as more special and desirable when they are subjected to noninstrumental ritual-like actions, compared with instrumental control actions (Kapitány & Nielsen, 2015).”

• cites Kapitány & Nielsen, 2015 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Developmental preparedness to imitate ritualistic behaviors may provide the basis from which more complex normative rituals arise later in life.

“This developmental preparedness to imitate the ritualistic (i.e., socially conventional) behaviors of others may provide the basis from which more complex normative rituals arise later in life (Nielsen, Kapitány, & Elkins, 2015).”

• cites Nielsen, Kapitány, & Elkins, 2015 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Observing rituals facilitates engagement in cultural learning because it is a marker or signal of important social behaviors.

“The first explanation for why observing rituals facilitates engagement in cultural learning is that it is a marker or signal of important social behaviors.”

Adherence to ritual actions limits attention to particular stimuli in the environment.

“First, a possible explanation of how ritual helps a person engage in cultural learning is related to the fact that adherence to ritual actions limits attention to particular stimuli in the environment.”

The same core psychological mechanisms, bottom-up and top-down cognitive processes, underlie all three functions: regulating social connections, emotions, and performance goal states.

“We argue that the same core psychological mechanisms, bottom-up and top-down cognitive processes, underlie all three functions.”

Bottom-up and top-down processing do not necessarily present a clear division for explaining ritual's effects.

“Second, bottom-up and top-down processing do not necessarily present a clear division for explaining ritual's effects.”

A ritual is rarely, if ever, exclusively the result of one level of processing.

“A ritual is rarely, if ever, exclusively the result of one level of processing.”

Children ostracized by their ingroup are more likely to engage in ritualistic imitation strategies than children not ostracized or ostracized by the outgroup.

“For instance, children who are ostracized by their ingroup (compared with those who are not ostracized, or are ostracized by the outgroup) are more likely to engage in ritualistic imitation strategies (Watson-Jones et al., 2015).”

• cites Watson-Jones et al., 2015 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

The script encoded in memory tends to have little variation.

“Thus, the script that is encoded in memory tends to have little variation.”

Each time a ritual is performed or observed, a mental narrative is recreated, which acts as a reminder of what a group values most.

“Each time a ritual is performed or observed, a mental narrative is recreated, which acts as a reminder of what a group values most (and the meaning behind the purpose of the ritual).”