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A Meta-Analysis of Interventions to Reduce Loneliness
Open accessAbstract
Social and demographic trends are placing an increasing number of adults at risk for loneliness, an established risk factor for physical and mental illness. The growing costs of loneliness have led to a number of loneliness reduction interventions. Qualitative reviews have identified four primary intervention strategies: (a) improving social skills, (b) enhancing social support, (c) increasing opportunities for social contact, and (d) addressing maladaptive social cognition. An integrative meta-analysis of loneliness reduction interventions was conducted to quantify the effects of each strategy and to examine the potential role of moderator variables. Results revealed that single-group pre-post and nonrandomized comparison studies yielded larger mean effect sizes relative to randomized comparison studies. Among studies that used the latter design, the most successful interventions addressed maladaptive social cognition. This is consistent with current theories regarding loneliness and its etiology. Theoretical and methodological issues associated with designing new loneliness reduction interventions are discussed.
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“in contrast, some technological interventions for reducing loneliness, as well as animal therapy or robot pets, were not found to significantly reduce loneliness (Masi et al. 2011; Veronese et al. 2021), although other studies find more promising results of such interventions with older adults (Banks, Willoughby, and Banks 2008; Chen et al. 2020; Gasteiger et al. 2021).”
From AI Companions Reduce Loneliness (2024) · cites this paper as Masi et al. 2011
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“As a potential stressor, chronic loneliness is closely associated with depressive symptoms, maladaptive social cognition, and poor recovery following a mental health crisis.82–84”
From A Longitudinal Study of Loneliness Before the End of the COVID-19 Pandemic: Trajectories, Predictors, and Impact on Chinese Adolescent Mental Health (2024) · cites this paper as [83]
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredThe source backs part of the claim, not all of it — or backs it for a different population, condition or comparison.
In the citing paper
“Interventions that focus on improving social skills and social support are one of the successful strategies that have been used to alleviate loneliness among adult population, as discussed in a previous meta-analysis [163].”
From Association between friendship quality and subjective wellbeing among adolescents: a systematic review (2022) · cites this paper as [163]
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredThe cited source says what the claim attributes to it.
In the citing paper
“Most current interventions assume loneliness results from lack of opportunities or competencies to form close relationships (Masi et al., 2011).”
From Young Adult Adaptability to the Social Challenges of the COVID-19 Pandemic: The Protective Role of Friendships (2022) · cites this paper as Masi et al., 2011
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“a meta-analysis by Masi et al. (2011) revealed that cognitive approaches (i.e., addressing maladaptive social cognition) were most effective in reducing loneliness compared to other strategies, such as social support.”
From Feasibility, acceptability, and preliminary efficacy of an internet-based CBT intervention for loneliness in older adults: A pilot RCT (2024) · cites this paper as Masi et al. (2011)
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“as generally effects of loneliness interventions seem to be rather small in randomized group designs (Masi et al., 2011)”
From Feasibility, acceptability, and preliminary efficacy of an internet-based CBT intervention for loneliness in older adults: A pilot RCT (2024) · cites this paper as Masi et al., 2011
In the citing paper
“Nine out of 10 reviews of these trials report significant reductions in depressive symptoms, 428-436 generally with small effect sizes.”
From Time for united action on depression: a Lancet–World Psychiatric Association Commission (2022) · cites this paper as [436]
In the citing paper
“Bullying at school (and in other settings) is an important target for interventions to avert a strong lifetime risk for depression. 436”
From Time for united action on depression: a Lancet–World Psychiatric Association Commission (2022) · cites this paper as [436]
In the citing paper
“Cacioppo and Cacioppo [30] reviewed data suggesting that experiences of physical warmth/coldness and feelings of social warmth/coldness share similar sensorimotor representations.”
From Loneliness and health in older adults: a mini-review and synthesis (2016) · cites this paper as [30]
In the citing paper
“loneliness or perceived social isolation may play a role in modulating the way in which individuals perceive and mirror the expressions and actions of others, particularly nonverbal cues that may indicate social rejection.”
From Loneliness and health in older adults: a mini-review and synthesis (2016) · cites this paper as [30]
In the citing paper
“Psychological approaches, such as Cognitive Behavioural Therapy and Mindfulness, have also been used to help people change their thinking about social relationships: some promising results have been reported, especially with older adult populations [77].”
From Associations between loneliness and perceived social support and outcomes of mental health problems: a systematic review (2018) · cites this paper as [77]
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“Social support-enhancing interventions often focus on the creation/use of support groups that provide a safe space for individuals to share concerns or interests (21,22) and may also include individual skill-building and network identification (23,24).”
BackgroundDepression and Loneliness Among the Elderly Poor
Banerjee, A., Duflo, E., Grela, E., McKelway, M., Schilbach, F., Sharma, G., & Vaidyanathan, G. (2022) · National Bureau of Economic Research · doi:10.3386/w30330 · Cited by 10
A lonely heart is a broken heart: it is time for a biopsychosocial cardiovascular disease model
Kahl, K. G., Stapel, B., & Heitland, I. (2023) · European Heart Journal · doi:10.1093/eurheartj/ehad310 · Cited by 10
Loneliness and Its Predictors in Rare Versus Common Chronic Illnesses
Nicoloro‐SantaBarbara, J. M., & Lobel, M. (2023) · International Journal of Behavioral Medicine · doi:10.1007/s12529-023-10231-9 · Cited by 9
“Randomized controlled trials utilizing cognitive behavioral therapy (CBT) to challenge maladaptive thoughts and enhance social interactions are highly effective in reducing loneliness [64, 65].”
The long-term effects of consecutive COVID-19 waves on mental health
Novotný, J., Gonzalez-Rivas, J. P., Kunzová, Š., Skladaná, M., Pospíšilová, A., Polcrova, A. B., Vassilaki, M. E., Medina‐Inojosa, J. R., López-Jiménez, F. A., Geda, Y. E., et al. (2023) · BJPsych Open · doi:10.1192/bjo.2023.620 · Cited by 12
Sun, R., Teulings, I. J. E., & Sauter, D. A. (2023) · Social Psychological and Personality Science · doi:10.1177/19485506231218362 · Cited by 10
“Thus far, initiatives to improve well-being have primarily been aimed at negative emotions, specifically anxiety (MacLeod & Clarke, 2015) and loneliness (Masi et al., 2011).”
Corcoran, E., Bird, M., Batchelor, R., Ahmed, N., Nowland, R. A., & Pitman, A. (2024) · BMC Public Health · doi:10.1186/s12889-024-18528-4 · Cited by 10
Need satisfaction in daily well‐being : Both social and solitude contexts contribute to well‐being
Adams, M. A., & Weinstein, N. (2024) · British Journal of Social Psychology · doi:10.1111/bjso.12769 · Cited by 15
Cho, S., Kim, S., Kim, S., & Lee, H. W. (2024) · Human Resource Development Quarterly · doi:10.1002/hrdq.21547 · Cited by 11
Rautiainen, L. J., Jansson, A. H., Knuutila, M. T., Aalto, U. L., Kolster, A., Kautiainen, H., Strandberg, T. E., & Pitkälä, K. H. (2024) · Gerontology · doi:10.1159/000540345 · Cited by 11
“The structural aspect measures the number of contacts with other people over a certain time frame [14], while the functional aspect examines social support and its quality [13].”
He, A., & Zhu, L. (2024) · Current Psychology · doi:10.1007/s12144-024-06457-9 · Cited by 9
“Loneliness is seen more as a subjective experience, both situational and influenced by one’s per - sonality and social cognition, that can be experienced by individuals of all ages and backgrounds (Masi et al., 2011).”
Dana, Z., Nagra, H., & Kilby, K. A. (2024) · JMIR Formative Research · doi:10.2196/59501 · Cited by 9
“Theoretical frameworks describe 2 distinct experiences of loneliness, one that is experienced as a fleeting or momentary emotion and another where the emotion is far more persistent and intractable [57].”
BackgroundŚwitaj, P., Grygiel, P., Leciak, J., Stefaniak, I., Opozda-Suder, S., & Anczewska, M. (2025) · Scientific Reports · doi:10.1038/s41598-025-87559-7 · Cited by 9
Chen, Y., Fang, Y., Yang, Y., & Dong, Y. H. (2025) · Journal of Personality · doi:10.1111/jopy.13023 · Cited by 11
Systematic review and meta‐analysis of mechanistic loneliness interventions for older adults
Coppola, A. M., Ibrahim, S., Bloch, N., Sah, E., Mehta, S., Goel, S., Calkins, J., Hernandez, V., & Lee, E. (2025) · Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences · doi:10.1111/nyas.70046 · Cited by 10
“14,16,18 While many reviews categorized interventions viadeliverymode(groupvs.individualformat,bytrainedprofessionals or peers) or sample characteristics (community-based or institutionalized participants), 18,19 the high heterogeneity in the focus and nature of the interventions impacted the…”
Influential'It makes life worthwhile!' Peer mentoring in long-term care—a feasibility study
Theurer, K. A., Stone, R., Suto, M., Timonen, V., Brown, S. G., & Mortenson, W. B. (2020) · Aging & Mental Health · doi:10.1080/13607863.2020.1849023 · Cited by 9
Machielse, A., & Duyndam, J. (2021) · Health & Social Care in the Community · doi:10.1111/hsc.13319 · Cited by 8
“It also confirms that adequate support is only possible through compassionate use of individual clients' preferences, needs and values in making decisions about their guidance, and that the points of action for interventions can be strongly divergent (Masi et al., 2011; Wenger & Burholt, 2004).”
BackgroundIgarashi, N., Aoyama, M., Masukawa, K., Morita, T., Kizawa, Y., Tsuneto, S., Shima, Y., & Miyashita, M. (2021) · Journal of Advanced Nursing · doi:10.1111/jan.14886 · Cited by 11
Chung, W., An, J., Russell, I., & Liechty, T. (2021) · Journal of Leisure Research · doi:10.1080/00222216.2021.1933656 · Cited by 10
“Programs using LTPA as a vehicle have been shown to provide social and emotional benefits (Masi et al., 2011; Reynolds et al., 2015).”
MethodLoneliness in Myanmar’s older population: A mixed-methods investigation
Akhter‐Khan, S. C., Wai, K. M., & Drewelies, J. (2022) · Journal of Cross-Cultural Gerontology · doi:10.1007/s10823-022-09459-x · Cited by 11
“To date, however, efforts to prevent and reduce loneliness in old age with targeted interventions have not been very effective (Akhter-Khan & Au, 2020; Masi et al., 2011).”
BackgroundAffection deprivation is more aversive than excessive affection: A test of affection exchange theory
Hesse, C., Floyd, K., & Mikkelson, A. C. (2022) · Personal Relationships · doi:10.1111/pere.12458 · Cited by 9
Zheng, S., Chen, X., Liu, W., Li, Z., Xiao, M., Liu, Y., & Hong, C. (2023) · Brain Imaging and Behavior · doi:10.1007/s11682-023-00776-4 · Cited by 9
“…needed to reduce lone-liness and enhance mental health levels among young adults in the future, although the intervention of interpersonal relationships has been identified to be an effective measure to improve individual loneliness (Eccles & Qualter, 2021; Ennis & West, 2010; Masi et al., 2011).”
BackgroundAntecedents of loneliness: a systematic review
Kumar, S. (2023) · International Journal of Sociology and Social Policy · doi:10.1108/ijssp-04-2023-0103 · Cited by 10
Biscoe, N., Bonson, A., Nickerson, A., & Murphy, D. (2023) · European Journal of Trauma & Dissociation · doi:10.1016/j.ejtd.2023.100343 · Cited by 14
Gasteiger, C., Collens, P., & du Preez, E. (2023) · Aging & Mental Health · doi:10.1080/13607863.2023.2269097 · Cited by 13
“Further, psychosocial interventions are frequently used to reduce loneliness by improving social support, increasing social interactions, and augmenting social skills (Masi et al. 2011).”
BackgroundMethod“I want the world back”: Pandemic loneliness, bodies, and places
Parsons, M. A., Mason, K. A., Wurtz, H., & Willen, S. S. (2024) · Ethos · doi:10.1111/etho.12423 · Cited by 10
Collen, M. R. (2015) · Journal of Pain & Palliative Care Pharmacotherapy · doi:10.3109/15360288.2015.1063563 · Cited by 10
McKenna, Á. E., & Gillen, A. M. C. (2015) · Journal of Psychiatric Research · doi:10.1016/j.jpsychires.2015.11.001 · Cited by 11
“It is essential that patients presenting with complex trauma profiles are prescribed phased and evidence based trauma focused interventions (Cloitre et al., 2012) to treat their psychiatric morbidity and build their capacities to form meaningful social connections (Masi et al., 2010).”
BackgroundAcculturation, Adaptation and Loneliness among Brazilian Migrants Living in Portugal
Neto, J., Oliveira, E. N., & Neto, F. F. M. (2017) · InTech eBooks · doi:10.5772/65693 · Cited by 13
Perceived Social Isolation within Personal and Evolutionary Timescales
Hawkley, L. C., Cacioppo, J. T., & Correll, J. (2013) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/oxfordhb/9780195398700.013.0017 · Cited by 10
Self-citationStudi Fenomenologis tentang Pengalaman Kesepian dan Kesejahteraan Subjektif pada Janda Lanjut Usia
Sessiani, L. A. (2018) · Sawwa Jurnal Studi Gender · doi:10.21580/sa.v13i2.2836 · Cited by 9
Effects of a 12-Week Cycling Intervention on Successful Aging Measures in Mid-Aged Adults
Geard, D., Rebar, A. L., Dionigi, R. A., Rathbone, E. N., & Reaburn, P. R. J. (2020) · Research Quarterly for Exercise and Sport · doi:10.1080/02701367.2020.1724861 · Cited by 9
The Effect of Social Media Use on Older Adults’ Loneliness-The Moderating Role of Self-disclosure
Xu, X., Zhao, Y., & Zhu, Q. (2020) · Lecture notes in computer science · doi:10.1007/978-3-030-50232-4_10 · Cited by 11
Raes, F., Bastin, M., Pede, T., Belmans, E., Goossens, L., & Vanhalst, J. (2020) · Scandinavian Journal of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry and Psychology · doi:10.21307/sjcapp-2020-015 · Cited by 9
“where it is found that interventions that address maladaptive cognitions have larger effects compared to interventions that address social skills or increase opportunities for social interaction (34).”
BackgroundEnhancing social and individual sustainability in urban co-living
Mellner, C., Niemi, M., Pöllänen, E., & Osika, W. (2021) · International Journal of Housing Markets and Analysis · doi:10.1108/ijhma-09-2020-0117 · Cited by 14
Hare-Duke, L., Dening, T., Oliveira, D., Dewa, R., & Slade, M. (2021) · Journal of Mental Health · doi:10.1080/09638237.2021.1875409 · Cited by 10
“Existing social connectedness interventions have targeted single domains such as increasing social network size, which do not appear to be effective in improving key psychosocial outcomes such as reducing loneliness (Masi et al., 2011; Victor et al., 2018).”
BackgroundTheeke, L. A., Mallow, J. A., & Theeke, E. (2021) · SAGE Open Nursing · doi:10.1177/23779608211015154 · Cited by 10
“Reviews and a meta-analysis of interventions delivered for loneliness recommended that interventions for loneliness should incorporate a solid theoretical base, strategies to target the maladaptive thinking of loneliness, and group delivery methods (Masi et al., 2011).”
BackgroundExclusion from Social Relations in Later Life and the Role of Gender: A Heuristic Model
Aartsen, M., Walsh, K., Villar, F., Lowenstein, A., Katz, R., Naim, S. P., Motel-Klingebiel, A., Wanka, A., Urbaniak, A., Hansen, T., et al. (2021) · Gender and Research · doi:10.13060/gav.2021.005 · Cited by 12
“Higher levels of loneliness are associated with poorer life satisfaction (Bai, Yan, Knapp 2018), lower self-esteem, mistrust, and a lack of self-confidence (Masi et al. 2011), and with higher levels of anger, anxiety, pessimism, and depression (Cacioppo et al. 2006).”
BackgroundCoaching with Emotions and Creating High Quality Connections in the Workplace
Smith, W., King, S., & Lai, Y. (2021) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-3-030-79952-6_10 · Cited by 10
Promoting Student Well-Being Through Classroom Interventions
Ibaraki, A. Y. (2022) · Teaching of Psychology · doi:10.1177/00986283211063582 · Cited by 14
“A meta-analysis of 50 studies examining loneliness interventions identi fi ed four common strategies for improving loneliness: Improving social skills, enhancing social support, increasing opportunities for social interaction, and addressing de fi cits in social cognition (Masi et al., 2011).”
BackgroundShiovitz‐Ezra, S., & Erlich, B. (2022) · Educational Gerontology · doi:10.1080/03601277.2022.2067960 · Cited by 9
“The literature notes four primary strategies toward this end, including (a) improving social skills; (b) enhancing social support; (c) increasing opportunities for social contact; and (d) addressing maladaptive social cognition (Masi et al., 2011).”
BackgroundBrasser, M., Frühholz, S., Schneeberger, A. R., Ruschetti, G. G., Schaerli, R., Häner, M., & Studer-Luethi, B. (2022) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2022.866613 · Cited by 9
Brookes, N., Palmer, S. E., & Callaghan, L. (2016) · Working with Older People · doi:10.1108/wwop-03-2016-0005 · Cited by 9
“Social isolation and loneliness impact on quality of life and well-being with demonstrable negative health effects (Masi et al., 2011).”
Background
Metadata
- Authors
- Masi, C. M., Chen, H.-Y., Hawkley, L. C., & Cacioppo, J. T.
- Affiliations
- University of Chicago (US)
- Corresponding author
- Masi, Christopher M.
- Venue
- Personality and Social Psychology Review
- Publisher
- SAGE Publications
- Published
- 2010-08-17
- Volume
- 15
- Issue
- 3
- Pages
- 219-266
- ISSN
- 1088-8683 (ISSN-L)
- 1532-7957
- PMC
- PMC3865701
- OpenAlex
- W2138867401
- Cited by
- 1,995
- References
- 168
- Citations by year
- 2026: 149 · 2025: 211 · 2024: 212 · 2023: 205 · 2022: 214 · 2021: 231 · 2020: 221 · 2019: 130 · 2018: 90 · 2017: 92 · 2016: 54 · 2015: 67 · 2014: 46 · 2013: 40 · 2012: 18
- FWCI
- 4.14
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- green
- europepmc.org
- Locations
- Personality and Social Psychology Review (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- Europe PMC (PubMed Central) (acceptedVersion)
- PubMed Central (acceptedVersion)
- Funders
- National Institutes of Health (Z99 RG999999, 5r01ag036433-02)
- National Institute on Aging (R01-AG036433, K08AG027200, R01AG034052)
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Health › Health disparities and outcomes
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Social Psychology › Attachment and Relationship Dynamics
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Social Psychology › Death Anxiety and Social Exclusion
- Keywords
- loneliness, social skills training, social support, social contact, intervention effectiveness, moderators, randomized controlled trials, non-randomized studies
- MeSH terms
- Adult, Health Promotion, Humans, Loneliness, Psychotherapy, Research Design, Social Adjustment, Social Perception, Social Support
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