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A Meta-Analysis of Interventions to Reduce Loneliness
Open accessAbstract
Social and demographic trends are placing an increasing number of adults at risk for loneliness, an established risk factor for physical and mental illness. The growing costs of loneliness have led to a number of loneliness reduction interventions. Qualitative reviews have identified four primary intervention strategies: (a) improving social skills, (b) enhancing social support, (c) increasing opportunities for social contact, and (d) addressing maladaptive social cognition. An integrative meta-analysis of loneliness reduction interventions was conducted to quantify the effects of each strategy and to examine the potential role of moderator variables. Results revealed that single-group pre-post and nonrandomized comparison studies yielded larger mean effect sizes relative to randomized comparison studies. Among studies that used the latter design, the most successful interventions addressed maladaptive social cognition. This is consistent with current theories regarding loneliness and its etiology. Theoretical and methodological issues associated with designing new loneliness reduction interventions are discussed.
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“in contrast, some technological interventions for reducing loneliness, as well as animal therapy or robot pets, were not found to significantly reduce loneliness (Masi et al. 2011; Veronese et al. 2021), although other studies find more promising results of such interventions with older adults (Banks, Willoughby, and Banks 2008; Chen et al. 2020; Gasteiger et al. 2021).”
From AI Companions Reduce Loneliness (2024) · cites this paper as Masi et al. 2011
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In the citing paper
“As a potential stressor, chronic loneliness is closely associated with depressive symptoms, maladaptive social cognition, and poor recovery following a mental health crisis.82–84”
From A Longitudinal Study of Loneliness Before the End of the COVID-19 Pandemic: Trajectories, Predictors, and Impact on Chinese Adolescent Mental Health (2024) · cites this paper as [83]
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredThe source backs part of the claim, not all of it — or backs it for a different population, condition or comparison.
In the citing paper
“Interventions that focus on improving social skills and social support are one of the successful strategies that have been used to alleviate loneliness among adult population, as discussed in a previous meta-analysis [163].”
From Association between friendship quality and subjective wellbeing among adolescents: a systematic review (2022) · cites this paper as [163]
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredThe cited source says what the claim attributes to it.
In the citing paper
“Most current interventions assume loneliness results from lack of opportunities or competencies to form close relationships (Masi et al., 2011).”
From Young Adult Adaptability to the Social Challenges of the COVID-19 Pandemic: The Protective Role of Friendships (2022) · cites this paper as Masi et al., 2011
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“a meta-analysis by Masi et al. (2011) revealed that cognitive approaches (i.e., addressing maladaptive social cognition) were most effective in reducing loneliness compared to other strategies, such as social support.”
From Feasibility, acceptability, and preliminary efficacy of an internet-based CBT intervention for loneliness in older adults: A pilot RCT (2024) · cites this paper as Masi et al. (2011)
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“as generally effects of loneliness interventions seem to be rather small in randomized group designs (Masi et al., 2011)”
From Feasibility, acceptability, and preliminary efficacy of an internet-based CBT intervention for loneliness in older adults: A pilot RCT (2024) · cites this paper as Masi et al., 2011
In the citing paper
“Nine out of 10 reviews of these trials report significant reductions in depressive symptoms, 428-436 generally with small effect sizes.”
From Time for united action on depression: a Lancet–World Psychiatric Association Commission (2022) · cites this paper as [436]
In the citing paper
“Bullying at school (and in other settings) is an important target for interventions to avert a strong lifetime risk for depression. 436”
From Time for united action on depression: a Lancet–World Psychiatric Association Commission (2022) · cites this paper as [436]
In the citing paper
“Cacioppo and Cacioppo [30] reviewed data suggesting that experiences of physical warmth/coldness and feelings of social warmth/coldness share similar sensorimotor representations.”
From Loneliness and health in older adults: a mini-review and synthesis (2016) · cites this paper as [30]
In the citing paper
“loneliness or perceived social isolation may play a role in modulating the way in which individuals perceive and mirror the expressions and actions of others, particularly nonverbal cues that may indicate social rejection.”
From Loneliness and health in older adults: a mini-review and synthesis (2016) · cites this paper as [30]
In the citing paper
“Psychological approaches, such as Cognitive Behavioural Therapy and Mindfulness, have also been used to help people change their thinking about social relationships: some promising results have been reported, especially with older adult populations [77].”
From Associations between loneliness and perceived social support and outcomes of mental health problems: a systematic review (2018) · cites this paper as [77]
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“Such interventions include programmes to improve social skills, enhance social support, increase opportunities for social interaction or address deficits in social cognition, which were found to have a small but significant effect on loneliness reduction (Masi et al. 2011).”
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“Though some reviews were found prior to 2000, these were either non-systematic or qualitative reviews.(14) A protocol for a systematic review to address the review question was approved by the university’s Ethics Committee.”
BackgroundMethodOlder Adults’ Perceptions of ICT: Main Findings from the Technology In Later Life (TILL) Study
Marston, H. R., Genoe, M. R., Freeman, S., Kulczycki, C., & Musselwhite, C. (2019) · Healthcare · doi:10.3390/healthcare7030086 · Cited by 144
Latikka, R., Hernández, R. R., Lohan, E. S., Rantala, J., Fernández, F. N., Laitinen, A., & Oksanen, A. (2021) · Journal of Medical Internet Research · doi:10.2196/28022 · Cited by 142
Does owning a pet protect older people against loneliness?
Pikhartova, J., Bowling, A., & Victor, C. R. (2014) · BMC Geriatrics · doi:10.1186/1471-2318-14-106 · Cited by 136
“[25] included adults of all ages.”
Social Isolation’s Influence on Loneliness Among Older Adults
Taylor, H. O. (2019) · Clinical Social Work Journal · doi:10.1007/s10615-019-00737-9 · Cited by 143
“, decreasing the older adult’s hypervigilance, negative thoughts/beliefs) and reducing negative interactions with family members and friends (Masi et al., 2011).”
Backgroundvan Winkel, M., Wichers, M., Collip, D., Jacobs, N., Derom, C. A., Thiery, E. W., Myin‐Germeys, I., & Peeters, F. P. M. L. (2017) · Psychiatry · doi:10.1080/00332747.2016.1256143 · Cited by 134
Lai, D. W. L., Li, J., Ou, X., & Li, C. Y. P. (2020) · BMC Geriatrics · doi:10.1186/s12877-020-01756-9 · Cited by 133
Bauer, A., Stevens, M., Purtscheller, D., Knapp, M. R. J., Fonagy, P., Evans-Lacko, S. E., & Paul, J. L. (2021) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0251750 · Cited by 130
“The importance of such processes has been confirmed in studies which found that relationship satisfaction and reciprocity of relationships are important contributors to improved mental health [65] and reduced loneliness [66].”
Nersesian, P. V., Han, H.-R., Yenokyan, G., Blumenthal, R. S., Nolan, M. T., Hladek, M. D., & Szanton, S. L. (2018) · Social Science & Medicine · doi:10.1016/j.socscimed.2018.04.007 · Cited by 120
“Tests of loneliness interventions have demonstrated some success (Masi et al., 2011; Theeke et al., 2016b).”
Alsarrani, A., Hunter, R. F., Dunne, L., & Garcia, L. (2022) · BMC Public Health · doi:10.1186/s12889-022-14776-4 · Cited by 124
Shapira, S., Yeshua‐Katz, D., Cohn‐Schwartz, E., Aharonson‐Daniel, L., Sarid, O., & Clarfield, A. M. (2021) · Internet Interventions · doi:10.1016/j.invent.2021.100368 · Cited by 124
“Interventions that combine CBT techniques for maladaptive cognitions were reported to be more effective in treating loneliness than interventions that focused solely on increasing social interactions and activities (Masi et al., 2011).”
Loneliness and mental health: The mediating effect of perceived social support
Hutten, E., Jongen, E. M. M., Vos, A. E. C. C., van den Hout, A. J. H. C., & van Lankveld, J. J. D. M. (2021) · International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health · doi:10.3390/ijerph182211963 · Cited by 117
“Early interventions that effectively reduce feelings of loneliness [84,85] might prevent lonely individuals from developing health issues.”
BackgroundLapane, K. L., Lim, E., McPhillips, E., Barooah, A., Yuan, Y., & Dube, C. E. (2022) · Archives of Gerontology and Geriatrics · doi:10.1016/j.archger.2022.104728 · Cited by 143
“(Masi, Chen, Hawkley & Cacioppo, 2011) In response to the unprecedented COVID-19 pandemic, congregated long term care living facilities around the world attempted and/or implemented innovative intervention strategies to alleviate loneliness in residents.”
BackgroundLoneliness in Primary Care Patients: A Prevalence Study
Mullen, R. A., Tong, S., Sabo, R. T., Liaw, W. R., Marshall, J., Nease, D. E., Krist, A. H., & Frey, J. J. (2019) · The Annals of Family Medicine · doi:10.1370/afm.2358 · Cited by 115
“(%) Employed full time 548 (45) 231 (44) 317 (45) Employed part time 119 (10) 40 (8) 79 (11) Retired 245 (20) 128 (24) 117 (17) Disabled 131 (11) 54 (10) 77 (11) Homemaker 62 (5) 27 (5) 35 (5) Unemployed 64 (5) 21 (4) 43 (6) Student 32 (3) 12 (2) 20 (3) Other 23 (1) 10 (2) 13 (2) Prefer not to answer 4 (0) 0 (0) 4 (1)…”
Differential impact of transient and chronic loneliness on health status. A longitudinal study
Martín‐María, N., Caballero, F. F., Miret, M., Tyrovolas, S., Haro, J. M., Ayuso‐Mateos, J. L., & Chatterji, S. (2019) · Psychology and Health · doi:10.1080/08870446.2019.1632312 · Cited by 124
Loneliness and type 2 diabetes incidence: findings from the English Longitudinal Study of Ageing
Hackett, R. A., Hudson, J. L., & Chilcot, J. (2020) · Diabetologia · doi:10.1007/s00125-020-05258-6 · Cited by 108
Systematic review of interventions addressing social isolation and depression in aged care clients
Franck, L., Molyneux, N., & Parkinson, L. (2015) · Quality of Life Research · doi:10.1007/s11136-015-1197-y · Cited by 124
Subramanian, I., Farahnik, J., & Mischley, L. K. (2020) · npj Parkinson s Disease · doi:10.1038/s41531-020-00128-9 · Cited by 126
Thomas, G., Martin, R., Epitropaki, O., Guillaume, Y. R. F., & Lee, A. (2013) · Journal of Organizational Behavior · doi:10.1002/job.1889 · Cited by 116
HEAVEN, B., BROWN, L. J. E., WHITE, M., ERRINGTON, L., MATHERS, J. C., & MOFFATT, S. (2013) · The Milbank Quarterly · doi:10.1111/milq.12013 · Cited by 135
Building social resilience in soldiers: A double dissociative randomized controlled study.
Cacioppo, J. T., Adler, A. B., Lester, P. B., McGurk, D., Thomas, J. L., Chen, H., & Cacioppo, S. (2015) · Journal of Personality and Social Psychology · doi:10.1037/pspi0000022 · Cited by 119
Self-citationA Social Model of Loneliness: The Roles of Disability, Social Resources, and Cognitive Impairment
Burholt, V., Windle, G., Morgan, D., & CFAS Wales team (2016) · The Gerontologist · doi:10.1093/geront/gnw125 · Cited by 127
“…to alleviate loneliness identified four primary strategies that are generally adopted: (a) improving social skills, (b) enhancing social support, (c) increasing opportunities for social interaction, and (d) addressing maladaptive social cognition (Masi, Chen, Hawkley, & Cacioppo, 2011).”
Cacioppo, J. T., Chen, H. Y., & Cacioppo, S. (2017) · Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin · doi:10.1177/0146167217705120 · Cited by 120
Self-citationVozikaki, M., Papadaki, A., Linardakis, M. K., & Philalithis, A. E. (2018) · Journal of Public Health · doi:10.1007/s10389-018-0916-6 · Cited by 128
“…evidence to relate the higher incidence of loneliness with the arousal of feelings of rejection, interpersonal mistrust and lack of self-confidence (Masi et al. 2011), whereas chronic loneliness has been linked to unpleasant emotional states, such as anger, anxiety, pessimism and low self-esteem…”
BackgroundPathways from Ageism to Loneliness
Shiovitz-Ezra, S., Shemesh, J., & McDonnell/Naughton, M. (2018) · International Perspectives on Aging · doi:10.1007/978-3-319-73820-8_9 · Cited by 109
Neurobiology of Loneliness, Isolation, and Loss: Integrating Human and Animal Perspectives
Vitale, E. M., & Smith, A. S. (2022) · Frontiers in Behavioral Neuroscience · doi:10.3389/fnbeh.2022.846315 · Cited by 128
A pilot digital intervention targeting loneliness in young people with psychosis
Lim, M. H., Gleeson, J., Rodebaugh, T. L., Eres, R., Long, K. M., Casey, K., Abbott, J.-A., Thomas, N., & Penn, D. L. (2019) · Social Psychiatry and Psychiatric Epidemiology · doi:10.1007/s00127-019-01681-2 · Cited by 113
“1 3 maladaptive social cognition [7] but thus far, positive psychology interventions (PPIs) have been overlooked as an alternative approach in combatting loneliness.”
BackgroundBarger, S. D., Messerli‐Bürgy, N., & Barth, J. (2014) · BMC Public Health · doi:10.1186/1471-2458-14-273 · Cited by 118
“depression [69] and as plausible targets for intervention [70].”
BackgroundLoneliness in Care Homes: A Neglected Area of Research?
Victor, C. R. (2012) · Aging Health · doi:10.2217/ahe.12.65 · Cited by 119
Neves, B. B., Franz, R. L., Munteanu, C., & Baecker, R. (2017) · Information Communication & Society · doi:10.1080/1369118x.2017.1348534 · Cited by 107
“Finally, although new communication technologies can enhance opportunities for social connectedness to help alleviate social isolation and loneliness (Findlay, 2003; Masi et al., 2011), different communication norms and expectations across generations”
BackgroundReview: Interventions addressing loneliness amongst university students: a systematic review
Ellard, O. B., Dennison, C., & Tuomainen, H. (2022) · Child and Adolescent Mental Health · doi:10.1111/camh.12614 · Cited by 144
Zhang, X., Huang, P., Li, B., Xu, W., Li, W., & Zhou, B. (2021) · Journal of Affective Disorders · doi:10.1016/j.jad.2021.02.040 · Cited by 120
van Dierendonck, D., & Lam, H. (2022) · Applied Psychology Health and Well-Being · doi:10.1111/aphw.12398 · Cited by 103
Welch, V. A., Ghogomu, E. T., Barbeau, V. I., Dowling, S., Doyle, R., Beveridge, E., Boulton, E., Desai, P., Huang, J. X., Elmestekawy, N., et al. (2023) · Campbell Systematic Reviews · doi:10.1002/cl2.1369 · Cited by 127
Kok, B. E., & Singer, T. (2017) · JAMA Psychiatry · doi:10.1001/jamapsychiatry.2016.3360 · Cited by 99
Body-Esteem, Self-Esteem and Loneliness among Social Media Young Users
Pop, L., Iorga, M., & Iurcov, R. O. C. (2022) · International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health · doi:10.3390/ijerph19095064 · Cited by 142
“Loneliness has been shown to be most prevalent in different social categories: young adults (aged 18–29 years); older adults; people with a physical or mental health condition; people with low income; and people with different marital statuses (single, separated, widowed, or divorced [7]).”
BackgroundHong, J. H., Nakamura, J. S., Berkman, L. F., Chen, F. S., Shiba, K., Chen, Y., Kim, E. S., & VanderWeele, T. J. (2023) · SSM - Population Health · doi:10.1016/j.ssmph.2023.101459 · Cited by 110
A Smart-Home System to Unobtrusively and Continuously Assess Loneliness in Older Adults
Austin, J., Dodge, H. H., Riley, T., Jacobs, P. G., Thielke, S. M., & Kaye, J. A. (2016) · IEEE Journal of Translational Engineering in Health and Medicine · doi:10.1109/jtehm.2016.2579638 · Cited by 100
A systematic literature review on the association between loneliness and coping strategies
Deckx, L., van den Akker, M., Buntinx, F., & van Driel, M. (2018) · Psychology Health & Medicine · doi:10.1080/13548506.2018.1446096 · Cited by 98
Lee, J. J.-H., Hong, J., Zhou, Y., & Robles, G. (2019) · Clinical Social Work Journal · doi:10.1007/s10615-019-00728-w · Cited by 98
Salgado, T. A., Monteiro, G. M. C., Marcon, G., Roza, T. H., Zimerman, A., Hoffmann, M. S., Cao, B., Hauck, S., Brunoni, A. R., & Passos, I. C. (2021) · Journal of Affective Disorders · doi:10.1016/j.jad.2021.04.044 · Cited by 103
The Impact of Mental Stress on Cardiovascular Health—Part II
Henein, M. Y., Vancheri, S., Longo, G., & Vancheri, F. (2022) · Journal of Clinical Medicine · doi:10.3390/jcm11154405 · Cited by 112
“There are only few small general population randomised studies addressing this in the literature [152].”
BackgroundLoneliness in schizophrenia and its possible correlates. An exploratory study
Trémeau, F., Antonius, D., Malaspina, D., GOFF, D. C., & Javitt, D. C. (2016) · Psychiatry Research · doi:10.1016/j.psychres.2016.09.043 · Cited by 99
Elmer, E. M., van Tilburg, T. G., & Fokkema, T. (2022) · Archives of Sexual Behavior · doi:10.1007/s10508-021-02132-3 · Cited by 116
Preventing loneliness and social isolation: interventions and outcomes
Windle, K., Francis, J., & Coomber, C. (2011) · Cited by 94
Coping with loneliness through consumption
Shrum, L. J., Fumagalli, E., & Lowrey, T. M. (2022) · Journal of Consumer Psychology · doi:10.1002/jcpy.1329 · Cited by 103
Metadata
- Authors
- Masi, C. M., Chen, H.-Y., Hawkley, L. C., & Cacioppo, J. T.
- Affiliations
- University of Chicago (US)
- Corresponding author
- Masi, Christopher M.
- Venue
- Personality and Social Psychology Review
- Publisher
- SAGE Publications
- Published
- 2010-08-17
- Volume
- 15
- Issue
- 3
- Pages
- 219-266
- ISSN
- 1088-8683 (ISSN-L)
- 1532-7957
- PMC
- PMC3865701
- OpenAlex
- W2138867401
- Cited by
- 1,995
- References
- 168
- Citations by year
- 2026: 149 · 2025: 211 · 2024: 212 · 2023: 205 · 2022: 214 · 2021: 231 · 2020: 221 · 2019: 130 · 2018: 90 · 2017: 92 · 2016: 54 · 2015: 67 · 2014: 46 · 2013: 40 · 2012: 18
- FWCI
- 4.14
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- green
- europepmc.org
- Locations
- Personality and Social Psychology Review (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- Europe PMC (PubMed Central) (acceptedVersion)
- PubMed Central (acceptedVersion)
- Funders
- National Institutes of Health (Z99 RG999999, 5r01ag036433-02)
- National Institute on Aging (R01-AG036433, K08AG027200, R01AG034052)
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Health › Health disparities and outcomes
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Social Psychology › Attachment and Relationship Dynamics
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Social Psychology › Death Anxiety and Social Exclusion
- Keywords
- loneliness, social skills training, social support, social contact, intervention effectiveness, moderators, randomized controlled trials, non-randomized studies
- MeSH terms
- Adult, Health Promotion, Humans, Loneliness, Psychotherapy, Research Design, Social Adjustment, Social Perception, Social Support
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