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A Meta-Analysis of Interventions to Reduce Loneliness
Open accessAbstract
Social and demographic trends are placing an increasing number of adults at risk for loneliness, an established risk factor for physical and mental illness. The growing costs of loneliness have led to a number of loneliness reduction interventions. Qualitative reviews have identified four primary intervention strategies: (a) improving social skills, (b) enhancing social support, (c) increasing opportunities for social contact, and (d) addressing maladaptive social cognition. An integrative meta-analysis of loneliness reduction interventions was conducted to quantify the effects of each strategy and to examine the potential role of moderator variables. Results revealed that single-group pre-post and nonrandomized comparison studies yielded larger mean effect sizes relative to randomized comparison studies. Among studies that used the latter design, the most successful interventions addressed maladaptive social cognition. This is consistent with current theories regarding loneliness and its etiology. Theoretical and methodological issues associated with designing new loneliness reduction interventions are discussed.
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“in contrast, some technological interventions for reducing loneliness, as well as animal therapy or robot pets, were not found to significantly reduce loneliness (Masi et al. 2011; Veronese et al. 2021), although other studies find more promising results of such interventions with older adults (Banks, Willoughby, and Banks 2008; Chen et al. 2020; Gasteiger et al. 2021).”
From AI Companions Reduce Loneliness (2024) · cites this paper as Masi et al. 2011
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In the citing paper
“As a potential stressor, chronic loneliness is closely associated with depressive symptoms, maladaptive social cognition, and poor recovery following a mental health crisis.82–84”
From A Longitudinal Study of Loneliness Before the End of the COVID-19 Pandemic: Trajectories, Predictors, and Impact on Chinese Adolescent Mental Health (2024) · cites this paper as [83]
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredThe source backs part of the claim, not all of it — or backs it for a different population, condition or comparison.
In the citing paper
“Interventions that focus on improving social skills and social support are one of the successful strategies that have been used to alleviate loneliness among adult population, as discussed in a previous meta-analysis [163].”
From Association between friendship quality and subjective wellbeing among adolescents: a systematic review (2022) · cites this paper as [163]
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredThe cited source says what the claim attributes to it.
In the citing paper
“Most current interventions assume loneliness results from lack of opportunities or competencies to form close relationships (Masi et al., 2011).”
From Young Adult Adaptability to the Social Challenges of the COVID-19 Pandemic: The Protective Role of Friendships (2022) · cites this paper as Masi et al., 2011
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“a meta-analysis by Masi et al. (2011) revealed that cognitive approaches (i.e., addressing maladaptive social cognition) were most effective in reducing loneliness compared to other strategies, such as social support.”
From Feasibility, acceptability, and preliminary efficacy of an internet-based CBT intervention for loneliness in older adults: A pilot RCT (2024) · cites this paper as Masi et al. (2011)
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“as generally effects of loneliness interventions seem to be rather small in randomized group designs (Masi et al., 2011)”
From Feasibility, acceptability, and preliminary efficacy of an internet-based CBT intervention for loneliness in older adults: A pilot RCT (2024) · cites this paper as Masi et al., 2011
In the citing paper
“Nine out of 10 reviews of these trials report significant reductions in depressive symptoms, 428-436 generally with small effect sizes.”
From Time for united action on depression: a Lancet–World Psychiatric Association Commission (2022) · cites this paper as [436]
In the citing paper
“Bullying at school (and in other settings) is an important target for interventions to avert a strong lifetime risk for depression. 436”
From Time for united action on depression: a Lancet–World Psychiatric Association Commission (2022) · cites this paper as [436]
In the citing paper
“Cacioppo and Cacioppo [30] reviewed data suggesting that experiences of physical warmth/coldness and feelings of social warmth/coldness share similar sensorimotor representations.”
From Loneliness and health in older adults: a mini-review and synthesis (2016) · cites this paper as [30]
In the citing paper
“loneliness or perceived social isolation may play a role in modulating the way in which individuals perceive and mirror the expressions and actions of others, particularly nonverbal cues that may indicate social rejection.”
From Loneliness and health in older adults: a mini-review and synthesis (2016) · cites this paper as [30]
In the citing paper
“Psychological approaches, such as Cognitive Behavioural Therapy and Mindfulness, have also been used to help people change their thinking about social relationships: some promising results have been reported, especially with older adult populations [77].”
From Associations between loneliness and perceived social support and outcomes of mental health problems: a systematic review (2018) · cites this paper as [77]
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“Whereas social contact helps alleviate social isolation, the negative effects of loneliness can be ameliorated through interventions addressing relevant socialcognitive factors (e.g., negative perceptions in and expectations of social interactions; Masi et al., 2011).”
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Social isolation and loneliness: Undervalued risk factors for disease states and mortality
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Social relationship adversities throughout the lifecourse and risk of loneliness in later life
Ejlskov, L., Bøggild, H., Kuh, D. J., & Stafford, M. (2019) · Ageing and Society · doi:10.1017/s0144686x19000345 · Cited by 44
Correlates of loneliness in older persons living with HIV
Yoo‐Jeong, M., Hepburn, K. W., Holstad, M. M., Haardörfer, R., & Waldrop‐Valverde, D. (2019) · AIDS Care · doi:10.1080/09540121.2019.1659919 · Cited by 40
Pandya, S. P. (2019) · Aging & Mental Health · doi:10.1080/13607863.2019.1691143 · Cited by 43
Puyat, J. H., Gastardo‐Conaco, M. C., Natividad, J. N., & Banal, M. A. (2021) · Journal of Affective Disorders Reports · doi:10.1016/j.jadr.2020.100073 · Cited by 51
Personal, social and relational predictors of UK postgraduate researcher mental health problems
Berry, C., Niven, J. E., & Hazell, C. M. (2021) · BJPsych Open · doi:10.1192/bjo.2021.1041 · Cited by 32
Narita, Z. C., Banawa, R. A., Zhou, S., DeVylder, J., Koyanagi, A., & Oh, H. Y. (2021) · Psychiatry Research · doi:10.1016/j.psychres.2021.114362 · Cited by 41
Lippke, S., & Warner, L. M. (2022) · Applied Psychology Health and Well-Being · doi:10.1111/aphw.12420 · Cited by 41
Loneliness Before and During the COVID-19 Pandemic: A Systematic Review with Meta-Analysis
Ernst, M., Niederer, D., Werner, A. M., Czaja, S. J., Mikton, C., Ong, A., Rosen, T., Braehler, E., & Beutel, M. E. (2022) · doi:10.31234/osf.io/wjx5v · Cited by 584
Cruwys, T., Haslam, C., Rathbone, J. A., Williams, E., & Haslam, S. A. (2021) · Journal of Affective Disorders · doi:10.1016/j.jad.2021.08.029 · Cited by 37
Interventions for Loneliness Among Adult Cancer Survivors: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis
McElfresh, J. J., Skiba, M. B., Segrin, C. G., Badger, T. A., Crane, T. E., Crist, J. D., & Thomson, C. A. (2021) · Journal of Psychosocial Oncology · doi:10.1080/07347332.2020.1867690 · Cited by 42
Interventions to reduce loneliness and social isolation in rural settings: A mixed-methods review
Williams, T. M., Lakhani, A., & Spelten, E. R. (2022) · Journal of Rural Studies · doi:10.1016/j.jrurstud.2022.02.001 · Cited by 44
Eres, R., Lim, M. H., & Bates, G. W. (2023) · Psychology and Psychotherapy Theory Research and Practice · doi:10.1111/papt.12469 · Cited by 43
Goossens, L., Klimstra, T. A., Luyckx, K., Vanhalst, J., & Teppers, E. (2014) · Psychologica Belgica · doi:10.5334/pb.ae · Cited by 39
Doyle, D. M., & Molix, L. A. (2015) · Archives of Sexual Behavior · doi:10.1007/s10508-015-0639-5 · Cited by 42
Orkibi, H., Azoulay, B., Snir, S., & Regev, D. (2017) · Clinical Psychology and Psychotherapy · doi:10.1002/cpp.2103 · Cited by 37
Wong, M. M. H., So, W. K. W., Choi, K. C., Cheung, R. K. Y., Chan, H. Y. L., Sit, J. W. H., Ho, B., Li, F. Y. K., Lee, T. Y., & Chair, S. Y. (2019) · BMC Geriatrics · doi:10.1186/s12877-019-1148-5 · Cited by 42
“Canteens for the older adults selling nutritionally balanced meals at low cost may provide a place for them to interact with one another, developing the social support that reduces loneliness and malnutrition risk [66, 67].”
BackgroundEspinosa, A., & Rudenstine, S. (2019) · British Journal of Clinical Psychology · doi:10.1111/bjc.12242 · Cited by 45
Loneliness, Social Support, and Adjustment to Aging in Older Portuguese Gay Men
Ribeiro-Gonçalves, J. A., Pereira, H., Costa, P. A., Leal, I. M. P., & de Vries, B. (2021) · Sexuality Research and Social Policy · doi:10.1007/s13178-021-00535-4 · Cited by 46
Chang, E. C., Lian, X., Yu, T., Qu, J., Zhang, B., Jia, W., Hu, Q., Li, J., Wu, J., & Hirsch, J. K. (2014) · Personality and Individual Differences · doi:10.1016/j.paid.2014.09.001 · Cited by 40
Power, J. M., Hannigan, C., Carney, S., & LAWLOR, B. A. (2017) · Qualitative Research in Psychology · doi:10.1080/14780887.2017.1329363 · Cited by 40
Santini, Z. I., Koyanagi, A., Tyrovolas, S., Haro, J. M., & Koushede, V. (2017) · Ageing and Society · doi:10.1017/s0144686x17001465 · Cited by 37
Habibi, M., Hosseini, F. F., Darharaj, M., Moghadamzadeh, A., Radfar, F., & Ghaffari, Y. (2018) · The Journal of Psychology · doi:10.1080/00223980.2018.1446894 · Cited by 37
Suicidality in Chronic Illness: An Overview of Cognitive–Affective and Interpersonal Factors
Rogers, M. L., Joiner, T. E., & Shahar, G. (2020) · Journal of Clinical Psychology in Medical Settings · doi:10.1007/s10880-020-09749-x · Cited by 41
Predictors of chronic loneliness during adolescence: a population-based cohort study
Hosozawa, M., Cable, N., Yamasaki, S., Ando, S., Endo, K., Usami, S., Nakanishi, M., Niimura, J., Nakajima, N., Baba, K., et al. (2022) · Child and Adolescent Psychiatry and Mental Health · doi:10.1186/s13034-022-00545-z · Cited by 38
The experiences of older male adults throughout their involvement in a community programme for men
Reynolds, K., Mackenzie, C. S., Medved, M. I., & Roger, K. S. (2013) · Ageing and Society · doi:10.1017/s0144686x13000858 · Cited by 42
Behavioral and Neural Dissociation of Social Anxiety and Loneliness
Lieberz, J., Shamay‐Tsoory, S., Saporta, N., Kanterman, A., Gorni, J., Eßer, T., Kuskova, E., Schultz, J., Hurlemann, R., & Scheele, D. (2022) · Journal of Neuroscience · doi:10.1523/jneurosci.2029-21.2022 · Cited by 42
Nicholson, N. R., & Shellman, J. M. (2013) · Research in Gerontological Nursing · doi:10.3928/19404921-20130110-01 · Cited by 36
Southward, M. W., Christensen, K., Fettich, K. C., Weissman, J., Berona, J., & Chen, E. Y. (2014) · Eating and Weight Disorders · doi:10.1007/s40519-013-0083-2 · Cited by 35
“Cognitive behavior therapy targeting distorted social cognitions may be most effective for this population [28].”
BackgroundO’Day, E. B., Butler, R. M., Morrison, A. S., Goldin, P. R., Gross, J. J., & Heimberg, R. G. (2021) · Journal of Anxiety Disorders · doi:10.1016/j.janxdis.2021.102362 · Cited by 36
“Their review also highlighted that group interventions and interventions that enhance opportunities for social interactions have potential for success (Masi et al., 2011).”
BackgroundInfluentialIs loneliness associated with mild cognitive impairment in low‐ and middle‐income countries?
Smith, L., Bloska, J., Jacob, L., Barnett, Y., Butler, L. T., Trott, M., Odell‐Miller, H., Veronese, N., Kostev, K., Bettac, E. L., et al. (2021) · International Journal of Geriatric Psychiatry · doi:10.1002/gps.5524 · Cited by 39
“Four primary intervention strategies have been identified to reduce loneliness including: (1) improving social skills, (2) enhancing social support, (3) increasing opportunities for social contact, and (4) addressing maladaptive social cognition.(46) It would be prudent for any intervention or policy change aiming to…”
BackgroundLoneliness and Quality of Life in Older Adults: The Mediating Role of Depression
Ahadi, B., & Hassani, B. (2021) · Ageing International · doi:10.1007/s12126-021-09408-y · Cited by 36
“Research evidence supports the notion that single humans experience negative thoughts and feelings (self-blame, low self-worth), and negative self-focused emotions provide a context for loneliness, high social isolation, and psychological diseases, including depression (Cacioppo et al., 2006; Masi et al., 2010).”
BackgroundReciprocal Relationships between Trajectories of Loneliness and Screen Media Use during Adolescence
Lawrence, D. M., Hunter, S. C., Cunneen, R., Houghton, S. J., Zadow, C., Rosenberg, M., Wood, L. J., & Shilton, T. (2021) · Journal of Child and Family Studies · doi:10.1007/s10826-021-02066-3 · Cited by 49
Gabarrell-Pascuet, A., Moneta, M., Ayuso-Mateos, J., Miret, M., Lara, E., Haro, J., Olaya, B., & Domènech-Abella, J. (2022) · Depression and Anxiety · doi:10.1002/da.23236 · Cited by 33
“…reduction, a disease diagnosis, functional decline, moving to a nursing home, etc.) can increase the risk of experiencing loneliness and depression (Mikkelsen et al., 2019), whereas the availability of social support and the quality of the existing relationships may promote emotional well‐being…”
BackgroundTesting a Model of Successful Aging on Masters Athletes and Non-Sporting Adults
Geard, D., Rebar, A. L., Dionigi, R. A., & Reaburn, P. R. J. (2020) · Research Quarterly for Exercise and Sport · doi:10.1080/02701367.2019.1702146 · Cited by 36
Systematic Review of Efficacy of Interventions for Social Isolation of Older Adults
Tong, F., Yu, C., Wang, L., Chi, I., & Fu, F. (2021) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2021.554145 · Cited by 39
Zheng, K., Johnson, S., Jarvis, R. R., Victor, C. R., Barreto, M., Qualter, P., & Pitman, A. (2023) · Current Research in Behavioral Sciences · doi:10.1016/j.crbeha.2023.100113 · Cited by 46
Goedendorp, M. M., & Steverink, N. (2016) · Aging & Mental Health · doi:10.1080/13607863.2016.1182967 · Cited by 35
“…& Woods, 2010), or falls (El-Khoury, Cassou, Charles, & Dargent-Molina, 2013), basically also require self-management skills, as do psychosocial health problems, such as depression (Krishna et al., 2011; Samad, Brealey, & Gilbody, 2011), or loneliness (Masi, Chen, Hawkley, & Cacioppo, 2011).”
Wielaard, I., Hoyer, M., Rhebergen, D., Stek, M. L., & Comijs, H. C. (2018) · International Journal of Geriatric Psychiatry · doi:10.1002/gps.4828 · Cited by 39
Tough, H., Brinkhof, M. W. G., Siegrist, J., & Fekete, C. (2018) · Journal of Psychosomatic Research · doi:10.1016/j.jpsychores.2018.04.009 · Cited by 38
Unpacking the layers: a meta-ethnography of cancer survivors’ loneliness
Raque‐Bogdan, T. L., Lamphere, B., Kostiuk, M. A., Gissen, M., & Beranek, M. (2018) · Journal of Cancer Survivorship · doi:10.1007/s11764-018-0724-6 · Cited by 36
“Although no meta-analyses on loneliness interventions for cancer survivors could be located, a meta-analysis by Masi, Chen, Hawkley, and Cacioppo [20] found that loneliness interventions for general populations have focused on (a) improving social skills, (b) offering social support, (c) enhancing social interaction o…”
Palikara, O., Castro, S., Gaona, C., & Eirinaki, V. (2021) · Australian Journal of Psychology · doi:10.1080/00049530.2021.1882270 · Cited by 45
“Loneliness has been reportedly associated with physical and mental health outcomes that can impact a wide range of life domains (Masi et al., 2011); indeed, research reported that loneliness constitutes a risk factor for a number of health conditions, such as increased blood pressure in older…”
BackgroundMethodInfluentialBennett, R. J., Barr, C., Montano, J. J., Eikelboom, R. H., Saunders, G. H., Pronk, M., Preminger, J. E., Ferguson, M., Weinstein, B. E., Heffernan, E., et al. (2020) · International Journal of Audiology · doi:10.1080/14992027.2020.1817995 · Cited by 35
Metadata
- Authors
- Masi, C. M., Chen, H.-Y., Hawkley, L. C., & Cacioppo, J. T.
- Affiliations
- University of Chicago (US)
- Corresponding author
- Masi, Christopher M.
- Venue
- Personality and Social Psychology Review
- Publisher
- SAGE Publications
- Published
- 2010-08-17
- Volume
- 15
- Issue
- 3
- Pages
- 219-266
- ISSN
- 1088-8683 (ISSN-L)
- 1532-7957
- PMC
- PMC3865701
- OpenAlex
- W2138867401
- Cited by
- 1,995
- References
- 168
- Citations by year
- 2026: 149 · 2025: 211 · 2024: 212 · 2023: 205 · 2022: 214 · 2021: 231 · 2020: 221 · 2019: 130 · 2018: 90 · 2017: 92 · 2016: 54 · 2015: 67 · 2014: 46 · 2013: 40 · 2012: 18
- FWCI
- 4.14
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- green
- europepmc.org
- Locations
- Personality and Social Psychology Review (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- Europe PMC (PubMed Central) (acceptedVersion)
- PubMed Central (acceptedVersion)
- Funders
- National Institutes of Health (Z99 RG999999, 5r01ag036433-02)
- National Institute on Aging (R01-AG036433, K08AG027200, R01AG034052)
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Health › Health disparities and outcomes
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Social Psychology › Attachment and Relationship Dynamics
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Social Psychology › Death Anxiety and Social Exclusion
- Keywords
- loneliness, social skills training, social support, social contact, intervention effectiveness, moderators, randomized controlled trials, non-randomized studies
- MeSH terms
- Adult, Health Promotion, Humans, Loneliness, Psychotherapy, Research Design, Social Adjustment, Social Perception, Social Support
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