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A Meta-Analysis of Interventions to Reduce Loneliness
Open accessAbstract
Social and demographic trends are placing an increasing number of adults at risk for loneliness, an established risk factor for physical and mental illness. The growing costs of loneliness have led to a number of loneliness reduction interventions. Qualitative reviews have identified four primary intervention strategies: (a) improving social skills, (b) enhancing social support, (c) increasing opportunities for social contact, and (d) addressing maladaptive social cognition. An integrative meta-analysis of loneliness reduction interventions was conducted to quantify the effects of each strategy and to examine the potential role of moderator variables. Results revealed that single-group pre-post and nonrandomized comparison studies yielded larger mean effect sizes relative to randomized comparison studies. Among studies that used the latter design, the most successful interventions addressed maladaptive social cognition. This is consistent with current theories regarding loneliness and its etiology. Theoretical and methodological issues associated with designing new loneliness reduction interventions are discussed.
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“in contrast, some technological interventions for reducing loneliness, as well as animal therapy or robot pets, were not found to significantly reduce loneliness (Masi et al. 2011; Veronese et al. 2021), although other studies find more promising results of such interventions with older adults (Banks, Willoughby, and Banks 2008; Chen et al. 2020; Gasteiger et al. 2021).”
From AI Companions Reduce Loneliness (2024) · cites this paper as Masi et al. 2011
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“As a potential stressor, chronic loneliness is closely associated with depressive symptoms, maladaptive social cognition, and poor recovery following a mental health crisis.82–84”
From A Longitudinal Study of Loneliness Before the End of the COVID-19 Pandemic: Trajectories, Predictors, and Impact on Chinese Adolescent Mental Health (2024) · cites this paper as [83]
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredThe source backs part of the claim, not all of it — or backs it for a different population, condition or comparison.
In the citing paper
“Interventions that focus on improving social skills and social support are one of the successful strategies that have been used to alleviate loneliness among adult population, as discussed in a previous meta-analysis [163].”
From Association between friendship quality and subjective wellbeing among adolescents: a systematic review (2022) · cites this paper as [163]
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredThe cited source says what the claim attributes to it.
In the citing paper
“Most current interventions assume loneliness results from lack of opportunities or competencies to form close relationships (Masi et al., 2011).”
From Young Adult Adaptability to the Social Challenges of the COVID-19 Pandemic: The Protective Role of Friendships (2022) · cites this paper as Masi et al., 2011
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“a meta-analysis by Masi et al. (2011) revealed that cognitive approaches (i.e., addressing maladaptive social cognition) were most effective in reducing loneliness compared to other strategies, such as social support.”
From Feasibility, acceptability, and preliminary efficacy of an internet-based CBT intervention for loneliness in older adults: A pilot RCT (2024) · cites this paper as Masi et al. (2011)
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“as generally effects of loneliness interventions seem to be rather small in randomized group designs (Masi et al., 2011)”
From Feasibility, acceptability, and preliminary efficacy of an internet-based CBT intervention for loneliness in older adults: A pilot RCT (2024) · cites this paper as Masi et al., 2011
In the citing paper
“Nine out of 10 reviews of these trials report significant reductions in depressive symptoms, 428-436 generally with small effect sizes.”
From Time for united action on depression: a Lancet–World Psychiatric Association Commission (2022) · cites this paper as [436]
In the citing paper
“Bullying at school (and in other settings) is an important target for interventions to avert a strong lifetime risk for depression. 436”
From Time for united action on depression: a Lancet–World Psychiatric Association Commission (2022) · cites this paper as [436]
In the citing paper
“Cacioppo and Cacioppo [30] reviewed data suggesting that experiences of physical warmth/coldness and feelings of social warmth/coldness share similar sensorimotor representations.”
From Loneliness and health in older adults: a mini-review and synthesis (2016) · cites this paper as [30]
In the citing paper
“loneliness or perceived social isolation may play a role in modulating the way in which individuals perceive and mirror the expressions and actions of others, particularly nonverbal cues that may indicate social rejection.”
From Loneliness and health in older adults: a mini-review and synthesis (2016) · cites this paper as [30]
In the citing paper
“Psychological approaches, such as Cognitive Behavioural Therapy and Mindfulness, have also been used to help people change their thinking about social relationships: some promising results have been reported, especially with older adult populations [77].”
From Associations between loneliness and perceived social support and outcomes of mental health problems: a systematic review (2018) · cites this paper as [77]
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“, addressing maladaptive social cognitions (which has the strongest evidence of effectiveness on general loneliness; [65]; developing socialisation/on boarding processes that focus on relational aspects of work; increasing opportunities for social contact; and increasing social support.”
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“Studying loneliness among leaders and managers is of great importance because it may negatively a ff ect a leader ’ s well-being (Wright 2012), adversely a ff ect performance (Ozcelik and Barsade 2011), and undermine the ability to make decisions, set goals, and regulate impulses (Masi et al. 2011).”
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Reducing loneliness in older adults: looking at locals and migrants in a Swiss case study
Ehsan, A., Bolano, D., Guillaume-Boeckle, S., & Spini, D. (2020) · European Journal of Ageing · doi:10.1007/s10433-020-00577-4 · Cited by 18
“A meta-analysis identified 50 loneliness interventions, yet none focused on migrants or minority groups as the target population (Masi et al. 2011).”
BackgroundFrerichs, J., Billings, J., Barber, N., Chhapia, A., Chipp, B., Shah, P., Shorten, A., Stefanidou, T., Johnson, S., Lloyd‐Evans, B., et al. (2020) · BMC Psychiatry · doi:10.1186/s12888-020-02961-x · Cited by 18
Bennett, R. J., Kelsall-Foreman, I., Donaldson, S., Olaithe, M., Saulsman, L. M., & Badcock, J. C. (2021) · American Journal of Audiology · doi:10.1044/2021_aja-20-00189 · Cited by 18
GROUPS 2 CONNECT: An online activity to maintain social connection and well‐being during COVID‐19
Bentley, S. V., Haslam, C., Haslam, S. A., Jetten, J., Larwood, J. L., & Rue, C. J. L. (2021) · Applied Psychology Health and Well-Being · doi:10.1111/aphw.12330 · Cited by 17
Welch, V. A., Ghogomu, E. T., Barbeau, V. I., Boulton, E., Boutin, S., Haitas, N., Kneale, D., Salzwedel, D. M., Simard, R., Herbert, P., et al. (2022) · Campbell Systematic Reviews · doi:10.1002/cl2.1260 · Cited by 19
Dworschak, C., Heim, E., Tröster, A., Grunder, C., & Maercker, A. (2024) · Journal of Affective Disorders Reports · doi:10.1016/j.jadr.2023.100692 · Cited by 16
Nicoloro SantaBarbara, J., & Lobel, M. (2022) · Journal of Health Psychology · doi:10.1177/13591053211014583 · Cited by 17
Golde, S., Romund, L., Lorenz, R. C., Pelz, P., Gleich, T., Beck, A., & Raufelder, D. (2018) · Journal of Research on Adolescence · doi:10.1111/jora.12433 · Cited by 17
Gemeinschaft, Netzwerke und soziale Beziehungen im Alter
Hahmann, J. (2019) · Springer Reference Sozialwissenschaften · doi:10.1007/978-3-658-09630-4_28-1 · Cited by 15
Zhang, D., Wong, C. K. M., Sit, R. W. S., Sun, W. J., Zhong, B., Niu, L., Zou, D., Xu, Z., & Wong, S. Y. S. (2019) · Journal of Psychosomatic Research · doi:10.1016/j.jpsychores.2019.109863 · Cited by 16
The Role of Comparisons in Judgments of Loneliness
Arnold, A. J., Kappes, H. B., Klinenberg, É., & Winkielman, P. (2021) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2021.498305 · Cited by 19
Caycho‐Rodríguez, T., Tomás, J. M., Hontangas, P. M., Ventura‐León, J., Burga-León, A., Barboza-Palomino, M., Reyes-Bossio, M. A., Peña-Calero, B. N., & White, M. (2021) · The Journal of General Psychology · doi:10.1080/00221309.2021.1913398 · Cited by 18
George‐Levi, S., Laslo‐Roth, R., & Ben-Yaakov, L. (2023) · Family Process · doi:10.1111/famp.12877 · Cited by 16
Austin-Keiller, A., Park, M., Yang, S., Mayo, N. E., Fellows, L. K., & Brouillette, M. (2023) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0277399 · Cited by 17
“In addition, as the study of older adults in general demonstrated, even fear of stigma is a barrier to social participation [33], and a meta-analysis of interventions to reduce loneliness reported that interventions that targeted maladaptive social cognition, such as the fear of experiencing stigma, had larger effect…”
BackgroundLi, M., Rao, W., Su, Y., Sul, Y., Caron, G., D’Arcy, C., Fleury, M., & Meng, X. (2023) · Age and Ageing · doi:10.1093/ageing/afad076 · Cited by 18
Pang, M., Wang, J., Zhao, M., Chen, R., Liu, H., Xu, X., Li, S., & Kong, F. (2024) · JMIR Public Health and Surveillance · doi:10.2196/49253 · Cited by 16
“Social support is an important determinant of loneliness [12,13].”
BackgroundLuk, J. W., Leiter, N., Stangl, B. L., Gunawan, T., Schwandt, M. L., Goldman, D. A., Diazgranados, N., & Ramchandani, V. A. (2024) · Psychiatry Research · doi:10.1016/j.psychres.2024.115826 · Cited by 16
Guidelines for evaluating and reporting social isolation and loneliness interventions
Schoenmakers, E., Lasgaard, M., & Power, J. M. (2024) · Journal of Health Psychology · doi:10.1177/13591053241238127 · Cited by 18
“…(Bessaha et al., 2020; Cattan et al., 2005; Cohen-Mansfield and Perach, 2015; Dickens et al., 2011; Eccles and Qualter, 2021; Findlay, 2003; Fokkema and van Tilburg, 2007; Franck et al., 2016; Gardiner et al., 2018; Hagan et al., 2014; Masi et al., 2011; Poscia et al., 2018; Williams et al., 2021).”
Loneliness Recognition Based on Mobile Phone Data
Li, Z., Shi, D., Wang, F., & Liu, F. (2016) · International Symposium on Advances in Electrical, Electronics and Computer Engineering (ISAEECE) · doi:10.2991/isaeece-16.2016.34 · Cited by 16
“According to Masi, Chen, Hawkley, & Cacioppo (2011), an individual may be lonely in a crowd or socially contented while alone [10].”
BackgroundBermeja, A. I., & Ausín, B. (2017) · Revista Española de Geriatría y Gerontología · doi:10.1016/j.regg.2017.05.006 · Cited by 26
The Association of Mastery With Loneliness
Ben‐Zur, H. (2018) · Journal of Individual Differences · doi:10.1027/1614-0001/a000269 · Cited by 17
Newman, L., Stoner, C. R., Corbett, A., Megalogeni, M., Khan, Z., & Spector, A. E. (2019) · Aging & Mental Health · doi:10.1080/13607863.2019.1673700 · Cited by 20
“Research indicating higher efficacy for interventions targeted at specific at-risk groups (Masi, Chen, Hawkley & Cacioppo, 2011), suggests that SNSs could be particularly beneficial for individuals experiencing high levels of social isolation and loneliness.”
BackgroundOjagbemi, A., Bello, T., & Gureje, O. (2020) · International Journal of Geriatric Psychiatry · doi:10.1002/gps.5451 · Cited by 17
“While social isolation is an objective measure of inadequate social relationships, loneliness is the result of one's negative evaluation of the quality of such relationships.(3) It is thus often observed that being around individuals with whom we share emotional proximity and support is more satisfying than to be surr…”
BackgroundNordin, T., Rosenberg, L., & Nilsson, I. (2020) · Scandinavian Journal of Occupational Therapy · doi:10.1080/11038128.2020.1849394 · Cited by 16
“In contrast to loneliness, social participation seems to be related to increased quality of life [15], decreased morbidity [20] and mortality [21], and interventions to enhance social participation have shown the potential to reduce loneliness [22].”
BackgroundYan, E., Lai, D. W. L., Lee, V. W. P., Bai, X., & Ng, H. K. L. (2022) · Violence Against Women · doi:10.1177/10778012221085998 · Cited by 17
“In recent years, there have been efforts in developing interventions assisted by digital technology for older persons (Masi et al., 2011).”
BackgroundDíez, È., Daban, F., Pasarín, M., Artazcoz, L., Fuertes, C., López, M. J., & Calzada, N. (2014) · Gaceta Sanitaria · doi:10.1016/j.gaceta.2014.04.013 · Cited by 17
“Nivel de estudios No sabe leer ni escribir 10 (13,5) Primarios incompletos 33 (44,6) Primarios completos 12 (16,2) Secundarios 10 (13,5) No consta 9 (12,1)”
BackgroundEffectiveness of Care Farming on Veterans' Life Satisfaction, Optimism, and Perceived Loneliness
Greenleaf, A. T., & Roessger, K. M. (2017) · The Journal of Humanistic Counseling · doi:10.1002/johc.12046 · Cited by 16
Świtaj, P., Grygiel, P., Chrostek, A., Wciórka, J., & Anczewska, M. (2017) · Social Psychiatry and Psychiatric Epidemiology · doi:10.1007/s00127-017-1470-1 · Cited by 19
“The emerging evidence suggests that the most promising strategy is reducing maladaptive cognitions [50, 51]; however, in practice the selection of appropriate interventions should be made after careful Fig.”
BackgroundPositive Psychiatry Interventions in Geriatric Mental Health
Lam, J. A., Aftab, A., Lee, E., & Jeste, D. V. (2020) · Current Treatment Options in Psychiatry · doi:10.1007/s40501-020-00228-6 · Cited by 17
Moieni, M., & Eisenberger, N. I. (2020) · Wiley eBooks · doi:10.1002/9781119057840.ch121 · Cited by 16
Newall, N. E. G., & Menec, V. H. (2020) · Ageing and Society · doi:10.1017/s0144686x19000801 · Cited by 20
“…more or less consensus by researchers that social isolation is an ‘objective’ measure of relationships, and is commonly contrasted with the ‘subjective’ concept of loneliness (e.g. Victor et al., 2000; Masi et al., 2010; Steptoe et al., 2013; Newall and Menec, 2019; but see also Nicholson, 2009).”
ResultWhat works to reduce loneliness: a rapid systematic review of 101 interventions
Blodgett, J. M., Tiley, K., Harkness, F., & Musella, M. (2025) · Journal of Public Health Policy · doi:10.1057/s41271-025-00561-1 · Cited by 17
“However, a common theme across previous reviews is the call for more targeted and higher quality approaches to the delivery and evaluation of loneliness interventions [1, 23].”
Hajek, A., & König, H. (2025) · BJPsych Open · doi:10.1192/bjo.2024.865 · Cited by 19
Loneliness Trajectories: Evidence for Staged Intervention Among Chinese Bereaved Parents
Wang, N., & Hu, Q. (2020) · Journal of Applied Gerontology · doi:10.1177/0733464820978808 · Cited by 16
“On the other, the quality and number of other important social relations change due to cultural stigma and self-isolation (Masi et al., 2011).”
BackgroundAnyan, F., & Hjemdal, O. (2021) · Journal of Social and Personal Relationships · doi:10.1177/02654075211033035 · Cited by 16
“Our findings may explain why previous loneliness reduction interventions to improve social skills through training, enhancing social support or increasing opportunities for social contact have been ineffective (Masi et al., 2011).”
BackgroundInfluentialA Qualitative Study of the Social and Lived Experiences of Homebound Older Adults
Cheng, J. M., Batten, G. P., & Yao, N. A. (2021) · Journal of Applied Gerontology · doi:10.1177/07334648211040383 · Cited by 18
“Other intervention programs, such as those to improve social skills, enhance social support, and increase opportunities for social interaction, have also showed promise (Masi et al., 2011).”
BackgroundLorente‐Martínez, R., Brotons-Rodes, P., & Maciá, E. S. (2021) · Health & Social Care in the Community · doi:10.1111/hsc.13581 · Cited by 17
Depression and loneliness may predict work inefficiency among professionally active adults
Mokros, Ł., Świtaj, P., Bieńkowski, P., Święcicki, Ł., & Sienkiewicz‐Jarosz, H. (2022) · International Archives of Occupational and Environmental Health · doi:10.1007/s00420-022-01869-1 · Cited by 15
“, (2011) indicate that addressing biased social cognition is the most promising of these (Masi et al. 2011).”
BackgroundProvision of social support and mental health in U.S. military veterans
Na, P. J., Tsai, J., Southwick, S. M., & Pietrzak, R. H. (2022) · npj Mental Health Research · doi:10.1038/s44184-022-00004-9 · Cited by 20
Broen, T., Choi, Y., Garza, E. Z., Pauly, T., Gerstorf, D., & Hoppmann, C. A. (2023) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2022.1021863 · Cited by 16
Youth loneliness in pandemic times: a qualitative study in Quebec and Ontario
de Velde, C. V., Boudreault, S., & Berniard, L. (2023) · International Journal of Adolescence and Youth · doi:10.1080/02673843.2023.2223671 · Cited by 17
“Our study suggests that beyond actions on sociability and the democratization of mental health care-two levers underlined in existing works (Masi et al., 2010) – fighting loneliness in young adults also relies on providing a basic degree of financial security for their lives, as well as support for…”
BackgroundYuan, Y., Knight, K. R., Weeks, J., King, S., Olsen, P., & Kushel, M. (2024) · BMC Public Health · doi:10.1186/s12889-024-18052-5 · Cited by 20
“Finally, rather than exclusively targeting individual-level factors, such as social skills, [36] future interventions could test whether an interdisciplinary approach that adopts a structural vulnerability framework [37] reduces individuals’ risk for both lone-liness and health disparities.”
BackgroundLee, Y. A., Guo, Y., Li, G., & Chen, F. S. (2024) · Journal of Happiness Studies · doi:10.1007/s10902-024-00742-x · Cited by 16
“Effective interventions should address this vicious cycle of loneliness and social isolation, not only by increasing opportunities for positive interaction, but also by countering negative social expectations that hinder lonely individuals’ social engagement (Masi et al., 2011).”
Metadata
- Authors
- Masi, C. M., Chen, H.-Y., Hawkley, L. C., & Cacioppo, J. T.
- Affiliations
- University of Chicago (US)
- Corresponding author
- Masi, Christopher M.
- Venue
- Personality and Social Psychology Review
- Publisher
- SAGE Publications
- Published
- 2010-08-17
- Volume
- 15
- Issue
- 3
- Pages
- 219-266
- ISSN
- 1088-8683 (ISSN-L)
- 1532-7957
- PMC
- PMC3865701
- OpenAlex
- W2138867401
- Cited by
- 1,995
- References
- 168
- Citations by year
- 2026: 149 · 2025: 211 · 2024: 212 · 2023: 205 · 2022: 214 · 2021: 231 · 2020: 221 · 2019: 130 · 2018: 90 · 2017: 92 · 2016: 54 · 2015: 67 · 2014: 46 · 2013: 40 · 2012: 18
- FWCI
- 4.14
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- green
- europepmc.org
- Locations
- Personality and Social Psychology Review (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- Europe PMC (PubMed Central) (acceptedVersion)
- PubMed Central (acceptedVersion)
- Funders
- National Institutes of Health (Z99 RG999999, 5r01ag036433-02)
- National Institute on Aging (R01-AG036433, K08AG027200, R01AG034052)
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Health › Health disparities and outcomes
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Social Psychology › Attachment and Relationship Dynamics
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Social Psychology › Death Anxiety and Social Exclusion
- Keywords
- loneliness, social skills training, social support, social contact, intervention effectiveness, moderators, randomized controlled trials, non-randomized studies
- MeSH terms
- Adult, Health Promotion, Humans, Loneliness, Psychotherapy, Research Design, Social Adjustment, Social Perception, Social Support
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