Loneliness during the last phase of the COVID-19 pandemic in Spain: A longitudinal study of group-based trajectories, risk factors, and consequences in mental health
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Introduction The present study aims to investigate the courses of loneliness following a national state of emergency including a curfew due to a rise in COVID-19 cases, associated risk factors, and the effect of loneliness on symptoms of depression and anxiety.Methods Data of 2,000 adults in Spain which were interviewed by telephone at the first follow-up of the MINDCOVID project (February-March 2021) and of whom 953 were interviewed nine months later (November-December 2021) were analyzed. Group-based trajectories and mixed models were constructed.Results Three courses of loneliness were detected: (1) invariant low loneliness (42.6%), (2) decreasing medium loneliness (51.5%), and (3) fairly invariant high loneliness (5.9%). Loneliness courses were associated with the severity and variability of symptoms of depression and anxiety. In contrast to the majority of pre-pandemic studies, younger adults more frequently reported loneliness compared to middle-aged and, particularly, older individuals. Other risk factors for loneliness were being female, being unmarried, and, notably, having pre-pandemic mental disorders.Conclusions Future studies should validate whether the newly observed loneliness patterns across age groups persist and assess the evolution of loneliness courses and their impact on mental health, with particular attention given to young adults and individuals with pre-existing mental disorders.
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Existing studies found that both high and medium loneliness trajectories were at increased risk for depression, anxiety, self-harm and suicidal ideation.
“Our results are also consistent with existing studies about loneliness trajectories which found that both high and medium trajectories were at increased risk for depression, anxiety, self-harm and suicidal ideation.50,86”
From A Longitudinal Study of Loneliness Before the End of the COVID-19 Pandemic: Trajectories, Predictors, and Impact on Chinese Adolescent Mental Health (2024) · cites this paper as [50]
The Results and Table 5 show higher depression and anxiety symptom levels in both the medium and high loneliness trajectories than in the low trajectory. The paper assesses depression and anxiety, but does not report self-harm or suicidal ideation as outcomes; those parts of the claim are unsupported. (LLM, conf=0.90)
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredA study in Spain reported three courses of loneliness in adults during the last state of the emergency.
“For example, a study in Spain reported three courses of loneliness in adults during the last state of the emergency.”
From A Longitudinal Study of Loneliness Before the End of the COVID-19 Pandemic: Trajectories, Predictors, and Impact on Chinese Adolescent Mental Health (2024) · cites this paper as [50]
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“50,86 All these findings indicate that adolescents who experience chronic loneliness at any degree, not limited to those with high level of loneliness, may benefit from strategies aimed at decreasing loneliness.”
- Authors
- Domènech-Abella, J., Gabarrell-Pascuet, A., García-Mieres, H., Mortier, P., Felez-Nobrega, M., Cristóbal-Narváez, P., Vilagut, G., Olaya, B., Alonso, J., & Haro, J. M.
- Affiliations
- Instituto de Salud Carlos III (ES)
- Universitat Pompeu Fabra (ES)
- ORCID
- Venue
- Psychiatry Research
- Publisher
- Elsevier BV
- Published
- 2023-08
- Volume
- 326
- Pages
- 115327
- ISSN
- 0165-1781 (ISSN-L)
- OpenAlex
- W4382681300
- Cited by
- 10
- References
- 43
- Citations by year
- 2025: 5 · 2024: 5
- FWCI
- 2.92
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- green
- hdl.handle.net
- Licence
- Locations
- Psychiatry Research (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- Repositori digital de la UPF (Universitat Pompeu Fabra) (submittedVersion)
- Funders
- Ministerio de Ciencia, Innovación y Universidades (PID2021-123885NB-I00, CD18/00049, CP21/00078)
- European Social Fund (2021 FI_B 00839)
- European Regional Development Fund
- Instituto de Salud Carlos III (COV20/00711)
- Centro de Investigación Biomédica en Red de Salud Mental
- Agencia Estatal de Investigación
- Universitat de Barcelona
- Universitat Pompeu Fabra
- Ministerio de Ciencia e Innovación
- Generalitat de Catalunya
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Clinical Psychology › COVID-19 and Mental Health
- Social Sciences › Health › Health disparities and outcomes
- Health Sciences › Medicine › Public Health, Environmental and Occupational Health › Maternal Mental Health During Pregnancy and Postpartum
- Keywords
- loneliness, COVID-19 pandemic, state of emergency, curfew, depression, anxiety, mental health, risk factors, age differences, marital status, gender differences, pre-existing mental disorders
- MeSH terms
- COVID-19, Anxiety, Depression, Female, Humans, Loneliness, Longitudinal Studies, Male, Mental Health, Middle Aged, Risk Factors, Spain, Young Adult, Pandemics
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